CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS
A. Grammar
1. Definitions of Grammar
Grammar is the natural, inherent meaning-making system of the language, a system that governs the way words come together to form meanings; grammar is
also the study of that system, the various theories or perspective that attempt to understand and describe it.
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According to David Crystal in the Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, “Grammar is a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language
under analysis.”
2
David Nunan defined in Second Language Teaching and Learning Grammar as “A description of the structure of a language and the way which
linguistic unit such as words and phrases are combined to produces sentences in the language.”
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1
Craig Hancock, Meaning-Centered Grammar, London: Equinock Publishing ltd, 2005, p. 6.
2
David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003, 2
nd
, p. 88.
3
David Nunan, Second Language Teaching and Learning, Boston: Heinle publisher, 1999, p. 97.
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Grammar is the study of all the contrasts of meaning that it is possible to make within sentences.
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Scott Thornburry in Uncovering Grammar stated “Grammar is a system of rules or patterns which describe the formation of a language sentences.”
5
According to many English dictionaries: a.
Grammar is the study of the classes of words, their inflections, and their functions and relations in the sentence.
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b. Grammar is the study and practice of the rules by which words change
their forms and are combined into sentences.
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From all definitions above, it can be concluded that grammar is the study of the systematic rules which describe the way words change their form and are
combined into good sentences. It is as a tool that must be learnt by students to master English.
2. Types of Grammar
According to David Crystal in The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, grammar is divided into six types:
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1. Descriptive Grammar: An approach that describes the grammatical
constructions that are used in language, without making any evaluative, judgments about their standing in society.
2. Pedagogical Grammar: A book specifically designed for teaching a
foreign language, or for developing an awareness of the mother tongue.
3. Prescriptive Grammar: A manual that focuses on constructions
where usage is divided, and lays down rules governing the socially correct use of language.
4. Reference Grammar: A grammatical description that tries to be as
comprehensive as possible, so that it can act as a reference book for those interested in establishing grammatical facts in much the same
way as a dictionary is used as a ‘reference lexicon’. 5.
Theoretical Grammar: An approach that goes beyond the study individual languages, to determine what constructs are needed in
order to any kind of grammatical analysis, and how these can be applied consistently in the investigation of a human language
4
http:grammar about.com, 2 November 2009
5
Scott Thornburry, Uncovering Grammar, Oxford: Macmillan Publisher, 2001, p. 1.
6
Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary eleventh edition, New York, 2003. p. 543.
7
Longman Dictionary of Comtemporary English International Student Edition England: longman group, 1980, p.494.
8
David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia..., p.88
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6. Traditional Grammar: A term often used to summarize the range of
attitudes and methods found in the period of grammatical study before the advent of linguistics science.
In addition, the following are the other types of grammar that was found by the writer from internet, there are ten types of grammar;
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1. Comparative Grammar: The analysis and comparison of the
grammatical structures of related languages. 2.
Generative Grammar: The rules determining the structure and interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the
language. 3.
Mental Grammar : The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can
understand. 4.
Pedagogical Grammar: Grammatical analysis and instruction design for second language students.
5. Performance Grammar: a description of the syntax of English as it is
actually used by speakers in dialogues. 6.
Reference Grammar: A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of
words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. 7.
Theoretical Grammar: The study of the essential components of any human language.
8. Traditional Grammar: The collection of prescriptive rules and
concepts about the structure of the language. 9.
Transformational Grammar: A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and
phrase structures. 10.
Universal Grammar: The system of categories, operations and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be
innate.
Based on various types above, it can be concluded that all types of grammar have their own point of view. However, they are concerned with their
own aims and functions.
B. Reported Speech
Kategori