50
In Bunong, both subject and direct object may be relativized, but relativization of the direct object is rare. In 69 the direct object, the water buffalo, is relativized and
fronted. 69
N K
+ K +,
K buffalo REL [3PL] too.late slash GAP TSM former
eat ADV.X ‘The water buffalo that they had already butchered, a large group devoured’
[Fish 569]
3.3.4.2 Complement clause
The verb + ‘say’ has been grammaticalized to function as a complementizer for
verbs of speech and cognition. This grammaticalized usage of the verb ‘say’ is not uncommon in many African and Asian languages Hopper Traugott 1993:14. In 70,
the complementizer + is used following ‘suspect’, a verb of cognition.
70 ++++
N ,
1S suspect COMP fiancée 2S.M.POSS truly ‘I suspected that she was really your fiancée.’ [Fish 459]
No complementizer is necessary with verbs of perception see, hear, etc. or desire want, allow, hope, request, etc..
71 + N
, after that request DET grandmother 3S.POSS make
crossbow ‘Then he requested that his grandmother make him a crossbow.’ [IS07.002]
3.3.4.3 Adverbial clause
Adverbial clauses are used for conditionals, time, location, manner, etc. Adverbial clauses may or may not make use of a subordinating conjunction.
A conditional margin may be introduced by the subordinating conjunction +.
51 72 [
+ ++
+ ,
+ if
2S.F cook 2S.F put.aside rice rice.water for 1S sis.old ok ‘If you cook rice, you put aside the rice water for me, ok older sister?’ [Fish 337]
The subordinating conjunction + for a conditional margin may be optional.
73 [ ,
first 1S 1S
wait 2S.M ‘If Im first, Ill wait for you.’ [Cow 64]
A circumstantial margin may be introduced by +.
74 N +
++ +
, +
CIRC cow male
1S.POSS RESULT have child cow female 2S.M.POSS ‘Because of my bull, your cow had a calf.’ [Cow 42]
A time margin may be introduced by the subordinating conjunction +.
75 [ + +
+ +
+ ,
+ after eat eggplant type
DEM3 Nhut say ‘After she ate that eggplant, Nhut said, “quote.” ’ [Fish 279]
Time and location margins may be introduced with the verb . T
76 + E M is modified by the addition of
‘almost, close’. 76 N
, close to
arrive edge water DEM3 3S hide at DEM3 ‘Getting close to the waters edge, she hid there.’ [Fish 153]
A reason margin can be introduced by the conjunction 2 ‘because’.
77 [ 2222 L
+, +
+ because not know know former become order 2S.M go
go.out body ‘Because I did not know then, I succeeded in ordering you to throw your body
go out of the water.’ [Fish 463]
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Chapter 4 Methodology
4.0 Introduction
Three narrative texts were chosen to analyze following the Dooley and Levinsohn 2001 Sequential Default model and the Longacre and Hwang forthcoming Discourse
Operations model. Discourse profiles were done for the two third person narratives, but not the first person narrative.
Each of the models approach the texts differently. The Sequential Default model provides a method for distinguishing subject and nonsubject contexts in order to facilitate
the identification of default encodings where possible. Once the various contexts for each participant is identified, then a default can be hypothesized from the statistical counts.
This model approaches participant reference from a syntactic angle. The Discourse Profile and Discourse Operations Model approach participant
reference from a descriptive angle. The profile describes the rising and falling tension found in narratives based on surface features within the text. The discourse operations
explain instances of under- or over-coding by the discourse operation in which a participant is involved.
