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The next example 107 illustrates the pronoun being used to highlight a confrontational event in the third clause. The older sister is topic so a zero would be
sufficient for this topic chain; however, the pronoun in 107c emphasizes the event and heightens the tension.
107 a. +
+ +
+ +
++ +
+ K
DET sis.old 3S.POSS DEM3 former walk.behind from behind ‘Her older sister had walked behind Jii-Mlii.’
b. K K
K K
walk hidden head appear head ‘Jii-Mpoon walked, seeing Jii-Mlii’s head and then it would
disappear.’ c.
+ ++
3S go.secretly from behind EVID ‘She secretly followed behind.’
[Fish 86-8]
7.1.2 Subject is previous addressee S2
The S2 category encompasses subjects in an independent clause that are addressees in the preceding speech act. For this category, I made a slight adjustment from
Dooley and Levinsohn’s original definition 2001:130. I broadened this category to include those subjects that are the addressee of an indirectly reported speech, as well as a
directly reported speech. Related to this category is the fact that within a closed conversation, once the speakers are introduced, it is also possible for the entire quote
formula to be elided. The tables below give the distribution of the S2 category for the Cow
and the Fish story.
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Table 19: Distribution of S2 category for the Cow story
S2 Cow owner
Bull owner Rabbit
Elders Total
Ø 1
2 3
PRO 3
1 4
PRO+TSM 1
1
PRO+RC 2
2
PRO+RC+DEM 1
1
NP 5
2 7
KIN+PRO 1
1 2
KIN+RC 1
1 2
Total: 8
7 5
2 22
Table 20: Distribution of S2 category for the Fish story
S2 Jii-
Mlii J-M
Jii- Mpoon
Smelt- fish
Uncle Mom of
sisters
Mom of
fish They
Total Ø
3 3
2 1
1 1 J-M
S-F 11
PRO 1
2 3
KIN 2
1 1
4
KIN+POSS 2
2 4
DET+KIN 1
2 3
DET+KIN+POSS 1 1
1 3
DET+KIN+POSS +DEM
2 2
Total: 10
7 4
2 4
2 1
30
Due to the linear counting of this category, the results for the S2 category are mixed. Statistically, the default is a zero, accounting for 27 1452 of the referring
expressions. Since this percentage is quite low to posit a default, I divided the S2 category into subcategories to determine if the data is more illuminating. The distinctions
of these subcategories is determined by what is happening with the subject in the current clause, after having just been addressed. The first subcategory which I label S2a, consists
of subjects that continue the dialogue. The second subcategory, S2b, includes a break
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from the dialogue and the subject is part of an intervening comment. Finally, the third category, S2c, includes subjects at a boundary break. These breaks are where the quoted
speech has ended and a new event or episode begins, but the subject still fits the S2c category. When the S2 category is subdivided in this way, it is easier to determine how
the environment informs the referring expression. When the subject continues the dialogue, the default coding is a zero, occurring in
5 of the 14 zero instances 36. However, if quote formulas are elided for one or more turns in a conversation, then the speaker is coded more heavily. This occurs in 10 out of
39 non-zero occurrences 26 and helps to disambiguate who the speaker is when the dialogue is lengthy.
When there is a break from the dialogue, usually some intervening comment, then the default coding is zero as well. This accounts for 9 of the 14 zero occurrences 64
and 6 out of 39 non-zero occurrences 15. Example 108 illustrates a subject in the S2b environment with a zero reference occurring at a minor break from the dialogue. In
clause 108a, Bachelor Smelt-fish is the addressee who becomes the subject in clause 108b which continues the narration. The subject referent in 108b is identifiable
through relational givenness of the verb ‘eat’. In the speech prior to this clause, Jii-Mlii invites Smelt-fish to eat, so he is the only logical subject referent.
108 a. + 2
+ K
K K
K after that Jii-Mlii say
‘After that Jii-Mlii said to Smelt-fish, “long quote.” ’
97 b. +
K K
K K
+ V0 after that
eat really rice at there INCH ‘After that Smelt-fish really started eating rice there.’ [Fish 126 132]
Example 109 illustrates a zero subject in the second clause that is the addressee of an indirect speech given in the first clause.
109 +
K K
K K
+ 3S
one CLF invite eat
together ‘He, the one man, invited the bull owner to eat rice together.’
+ K
K K
K eat
together NEG want also
‘Eating together, the bull owner didnt want to.’ [Cow 13-4]
Where a major break or new event occurs, the subject is coded more heavily which is expected at a boundary cf. §8.3.6. In both the Fish and the Cow stories, the
participants are coded explicitly with a pronoun + relative clause, kin + relative clause, or a determiner + kin + possessor phrase at major breaks between the quoted speech and the
continued narration. The clauses previous to example 110 contain a quote from the bull owner addressing the cow owner. In example 110, the cow owner is the subject and
previously the addressee; however, this clause marks a major boundary between the previous quoted material and the narration that follows.
110 + after that 3S REL graze cow
female NEG able argue ‘After that the one who grazed the cow was not able to argue.’ [Cow 43]
Some of the over-codings in the S2 category occur because the participant initiates an utterance cf. §8.3.8. This accounts for four instances in both the Cow and
the Fish stories. Another reason for over-coding in this category is the quote formula
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introduces the speaker before he or she takes part in a confrontational dialogue cf. §8.3.4. Confrontational dialogue accounts for seven of the over-codings in the Fish story
and four in the Cow story. The peak episode of the Cow story consists mainly of quoted speech and three different participants speak in this episode—the bull owner, Rabbit, and
the elders. In two instances, the subjects are made explicit to avoid ambiguity of who is speaking to whom in the Cow story.
7.1.3 Subject is previous non-subjectnon-addressee S3
