Time and Place of Analysis. Strength and Weakness of Stylistics. Moral Message. 1. Definition of Moral.

G. Time and Place of Analysis.

The analysis will be committed in Jakarta 2007 all day this semester. The activities are including on preparing, collecting data, analyzing data, and making note. 19 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A. Semantic 1. The Definition of Semantics

Semantics is one of the branches of Linguistics dealing with the meaning of words and sentences or semantics is the technical term used to refer to the study of meaning. 9 Unfortunately, ‘meaning’ covers a variety of aspects of language, and there is no very general agreement either about what meaning is or about the way in which it should be described. The study of meaning in language is called Semasiology or Semantics. 10 And the definition of the meaning is what referred to or indicated by sounds, words or signal. For example; sounds represented by the house in the written from the language signified the concept the picture of the house. 11 According to Slametmuljana Semantik adalah penelitian makna kata dalam bahasa tertentu menurut sistem penggolongan. Semantics is a meaning analysis in certain languages using classifying system 12 9 F.R. Palmer, Semantic A New Outline, New York: Cambridge University, 1997, p. 1 10 Albert C. Baugh, History of The English Language, USA: D. Appleton Century Company, 1935, p. 232 11 Victoria Fromkin, An Introduction To Language, New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998, p. 5 12 Mansur Pateda, Semantik Leksikal, Ende: Nusa Indah, 1980, p. 19 20

2. Concept of Meaning

According to the Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure every linguistic signs consist of two components, they are signified, and the sign that will be given a meaning. It is a kind of concept or thoughtreference from a certain sign, and the second is signifier, the sign that will have sound component and concept meaning component. 13 Another definition of meaning according to Ogden and Richard can be illustrated as a triangle, 14 as follows: Thoughtreference Symbol referent According to that triangle, Ogden and Richard say that there is no direction link between symbol and referent. The link is via thought or reference, the concept of our minds. 15 The symbols of this curse are the linguistic elements- the word, sentences, etc. The referent is the object, etc. and the thought or reference is a concept. Semantics does not only explain about concept of meaning from communication system, but also it explains concept of meaning from lexical and grammatical side known as lexical and grammatical meanings. The first, lexical meaning or dictionary-meaning is a meaning that is composed of smaller meaningful parts, or it 13 F. R. Palmer op.cit, p.5 14 Ibid, p. 26 15 Ibid 21 is the meaning from dictionary directly. 16 For example, the word `tables` has a definite meaning, besides table has reference as a noun. The lexical meaning based on Advanced Dictionary in English Language, table is a piece of furniture that consists of a flat top supported by legs. Thus, semantic meaning or lexical meaning is the real description about a concept of meaning. The second, grammatical meaning is a meaning caused by grammatical process such as process of affixes, reduplication and composition. For example, go- going- gone, have gone, etc. Different languages have some different grammatical systems. 17

3. Non- literal Meaning.

Non- literal meaning of language in semantics is traditionally called Figurative Language and is described by a host of rhetorical terms including metaphor, irony, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole and litotes. 18 Sometimes non- literal meaning describes untrue or impossible terms in order to achieve some special effects. On closer examination, it is difficult to draw a firm line between literal and non- literal uses of language. One of the ways of language change is by the speaker meaning to shift the meaning of words to fit new conditions. One shift is by metaphorical extension, where some new ideas are depicted. 16 Charlaes W. Kreidles, Introducing English Semantics, New York: Rout ledge , 1998, p. 49 17 Ibid, p. 50 18 John I Seed, Semantics , Blackwell: Australia, 2003, p. 15 22 Example: • I’m hungry. • I’m thirsty • I could eat the horse. • I can run out the river through my throat. The examples above are few samples from semantics and figurative language. If the underlined sentences are seen from the lexical meaning, it will be getting the different meaning, because, the sentences ”I could eat the horse” and “I can run out the river through my throat” are categorized as Hyperbole form or figurative form.

B. Stylistic 1. Definition of Stylistics

Stylistics is known as a style term. Style word is descended from Lateen Stylus. Stylus is the tool for writing at the plaque of wax. In using this tool it will influence the clear of writing at the plaque. The stress at the tool is focused at the expertise for good writing. So, style changes into an ability or proficiency in writing or using the word beautifully. 19 Stylistics is a method of textual interpretation in which primacy of lace is assigned to language. 20 Another definition about stylistic is as the linguistic study of 19 Gorys Keraf, diksi dan Gaya Bahasa , Jakarta: PT. Gramedia, 1984, p. 112 20 Paul Simpson, Stylistic: A Resource Book For The Student, New York: Rout Ledge, 2004, p. 2 23 style; it is rarely undertaken for its own sake, simply it is as an exercise in describing shape of language. 21 In other definition, Ohman argues that the study of style is dependent on a theory of linguistics and theory of semantics because these two latter theories describe the system of language. He also argues that the concept of style implies that the words on page could be changed without changing the basic meaning. Style, then, involves the notion that there are alternative ways of saying the same thing. 22 For Ohnman, an author’s style is his characteristic way in writing. The task of the student of style is to identify in some precise way it is that distinguishes one way of writing from another. 23 Studying style has the certain aim. The aim in studying style is to explain something, and in general, literary stylistics has the goal of explaining the relation between language and artistic function explicitly. 24 The object in stylistics is literal word or phrase. Besides that, stylistics has connection with the literature. The connection between stylistics and literature bring two important cavils, they are: 1 The first is that creativity and innovation in language use should not be seen as the exclusive preserve of literary writing. Many forms of discourse such as; advertising, journalist, popular music- even casual conversation often display 21 Geoffrey N. Leech, Michael H. Short, Style in Fiction . English, p. 13 22 Mark Lester, Reading in Applied Transformational Grammar, New York: University of Hawaii, 1969, p. 117 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid 24 a high degree of stylistic dexterity, it would be wrong if we view the dexterity in language use is as exclusive formal literature. 2 The second is that the techniques of stylistics analysis are as much about deriving insights about linguistics structure and function as they are about understanding literary texts. 25

2. Cognitive Stylistics.

Like semantics, there is also cognitive stylistic, the focus of cognitive stylistic is about interaction between dialogue, discourse and social interaction. All of the tools are to explore the interaction of the dimension of literary discourse in the broader sense and as a method for examining patterns of dialogue of fictional characters narrowly. 26 So, in other word, it can be said that cognitive stylistics is intended to supplement rather than supplant, existing methods of analysis, it does aim to shift the focus away from models of text and composition toward models that make the explicit link between the human mind and the process of reading. A further stimulus to cognitive turn was provided by the object of analysis it self, literature. 27 In stylistics, metaphor is also part of cognitive stylistics, because the important feature of cognitive stylistics has been interesting in the way we transfer mental constructs, and especially in the way we map one mental representation into another when we read texts. Stylist and cognitive poets have consistently drawn attention to 25 Paul Simpson op. cit p. 3 26 ibid, p. 38 27 ibid 25 this system of conceptual transfer in both literary and in everyday discourse, and have identified two important tropes, of figure of speech. Metaphor is a process of mapping between two different conceptual domains. Like semantics, the domains are known as the target and the source domain. The target domain is the topic or concept that we want to describe through the metaphor while the source domain refers to the concept that we draw upon in order to create the metaphorical construction. 28 For example: she really blew her lid. In this statement the target domain is our understanding of the concept of anger because it is the concept we wish to describe through the metaphor. The relation between metaphor and linguistic form is an indirect one, which means that we can express the same conceptual metaphor through a variety of construction.

3. Approaches in Stylistics

In order to achieve some purposes, there are some approaches to define the concept of style differently, such as: 1. “Dualism restricts style to those choices of manner rather than matter and of expression rather than content. The dualist assumes the style as the dress of the thought. It differs between what has to say and whom it is presented to the reader. Another concept is style as a manner of expression. So, there are different ways to convey the same content”. 28 Ibid. 26 2. “Monism, in the contrary of dualism, argues about the inseparability of style. According to them. It is a mistake to distinct between the form and the meaning”. 3. “Pluralism emphasizes the concept of the style in terms of language function. This approach distinguishes various meaning according to the various function. Language performs a number of different functions and any pieces of language are likely to be the result of choices made on different functional levels.” 29

C. Stylistics on Indirect Meaning.

Stylistics on indirect meaning is called Figure of Speech, which is separated at two groups, they are rhetorical stylistic and illusion stylistic. Rhetorical stylistic adalah penyimpangan dari tafsiran yang umum untuk mendapatkan efek tertentu Rhetorical stylistic is deviation from the usual construction to get certain effect. Illusion stylistic adalah gaya penyimpangan yang sangat jauh dari makna sebenarnya Illusion stylistic is far deviation from the usual construction, especially at the meaning of the sentence. 30 The first is the rhetorical stylistic. There are some types, like: 1 Alliteration is repetition of the first sound of letter of a succession of word. Usually, this style is used on poetry; prose, etc. for example sing a song of sixpence. 29 Geoffrey N. Leech, Stylistics and Functionalism in Linguistics of Writing: Arguments Between Language and Literature, England: Manchester University, p. 15 30 Sukron Kamil, Kritik Sastra Arab: Teori Klasik dan Modern , Jakarta: UIN, 2004, p. 73 27 2 Assonance is agreement between stressed vowels in two words, but not in the following consonants, for example Sharper and garter. 3 Apophasis is statement to explain something, but in fact, it denies something. For example I don’t want to reveal to this forum that you have embezzled a million rupiahs of state budget. 4 Euphemism is using of words with good aim to explain something. For example Pass away is a euphemism for ‘die’. The second is illusion stylistic. It is the first time in talking about comparison or sameness. To compare something to another, it is trying to find sameness between those things. 31 Illusion stylistic can be called Figurative Language. The kinds of figurative languages like personification, hyperbole, simile, irony, metaphor, and metonymy are the categories of illusion stylistic. Here they are that categories of illusion stylistic:

1. Simile

is the comparison expressed by using of some words or phrases, such as like, as, than, similar to, resembles, or seems. 32 For example: • She groaned like a wolf. cried hardly The above sentence is a form of figurative language in simile form. The word ‘like’ explains the comparison between human and animal. Where the human has a same cried like a wolf. 31 Gotys Keraf, op.cit, p. 140 32 Tom Mc Arthur, The Oxford Comparison to The English Language . New York: Oxford University, 1992, p. 936 28 • Her eyes are like stars. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in simile form. The word ‘like’ explains the comparison between human and thing. Where the human eyes have a same light like stars. • He raced for the goal line like an antelope. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in simile form. The word ‘like’ explains the comparison between human and animal. Where the human power has a speedy race like an antelope.

2. Metaphor

is language that directly connects seemingly unrelated subjects. It is a figure of speech that connects two or more things. More generally, a metaphor describes a first subject as being or equal to a second object in some way. Where with few words, emotions and associations from one context are associated with objects and entities in a different context. It compares two subjects without using like or as. 33 For example: • The king of jungle The above sentence is a form of figurative language in metaphor form. The word ‘king’ is compared to a jungle. The aim being to describe the king by taking well-known attributes from a jungle. 33 George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphor, London: University Chicago, p. 36 29 • All the world’s a stage The above sentence is a form of figurative language in metaphor form. The word ‘world’ is compared to a stage. The aim being to describe the world by taking well-known attributes from a stage.

3. Personification

is consisting in giving the attributes of human being to an animal, an object, or a concept, for instance our scare was increasing when the wind shouted in the midnight. 34 For example: • McDonald loves everyone. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in personification form. The above sample explains that the McDonald’s food has the attributes of human being that to love eyeryone. • The diamonds are jealous of your beauty. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in personification form. The above sample explains that the diamond has the attributes of human being. • The wind has hit my check at the beach. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in personification form. The above sample explains that the wind has the attributes of human being. It can hit someone like the human. 34 Bradford T. Stull, op. cit , p. 35 30

4. Apostrophe

is closely related to personification which consists in addressing someone absent or dead or something non human as if that person or thing was present and alive and able to reply to what is being said. For example: • The speaker in A. E. Houseman’s said “To a dying young”. a dead runner The above sentence is a form of figurative language in apostrophe form. Apostrophe is addressing someone absent or dead or something non human as if that person or thing was present and alive and able to reply to what is being said. The above sample explains that the dead person as if presents and hears what being said by the speaker.

5. Synecdoche

is, by far, the strangest figurative language. It is the most unfamiliar figurative language terms. As a word, however, it is rarely used in polite company. In other word, synecdoche is a figurative language where the part stands for the whole. 35 For example: • I have a set of wheels = car. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in synecdoche form. Synecdoche is a figurative language where the part stands for the whole. The above sample explains a set of wheels is meant to the car that has a set of wheels. 35 Ibid, p. 36 31 • We need strong bodies for our team = strong men. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in synecdoche form. Synecdoche is a figurative language where the part stands for the whole. The above sample explains strong body is meant to the man whom has a full body. • The cost is 500 dollars per head = one person The above sentence is a form of figurative language in synecdoche form. Synecdoche is a figurative language where the part stands for the whole. The above sample explains the word ‘per head’ referred to person with whole body whom must pay 500 per person.

6. Overstatement Hyperbole

is a rhetorical term for exaggeration or overstatement, usually deliberate and not meant to be taken too literary. 36 For example: • You could knock me over with a feather. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in hyperbole form. The above sample sentence is out of our mind. How the person could knock over with a feather? The feather as if is big thing that can make someone hurt. • I will die if I don’t pass this course. The above sentence is a form of figurative language in hyperbole form. The above sample sentence is out of our mind. How will the person die if he fail this course? The course as if is big danger that can make someone die. In fact, if the 36 Tom Mc Arthur, op. cit , p. 491 32 person fail this course, he could be anger by his parents or something bad happen to him that could not make him die.

7. Irony

is a rhetoric words with an implication opposite to their usual meaning. Ironic is a comment, maybe humorous or mildly sarcastic. 37 For example: • In a difficult moment, an act of kindness makes things worse, and someone says: “well’ that’s a lot better, isn’t it?” The above sentence is a form of figurative language irony form. Irony is a rhetoric words with an implication opposite to their usual meaning. The above sample explains someone in bad situation will help to make a better condition. Unfortunately, the condition is going worse, then someone as if says that the situation is better.

8. Analogy;

is a comparison or correspondence between two things because of a third element that they considered to share. An analogy is usually framed in order to described or explain the nature of something. 38 For example: • “…let me give you an analogy. Time is like river. Just as the river flows from higher to lower ground, so time flows from the past into future.” The above sentence is a form of figurative language analogy form. Analogy is a comparison or correspondence between two things because of a third element 37 Ibid, p. 532 38 Ibid , p. 63 33 that they considered to share. The above sample compares two things between time and river. Both of them have same current that go straight from the higher to the lower ground or the past into the future.

9. Metonymy

is the use of word or phrase for another to which it bears an important relation, as the effect of the cause, the abstract for the concrete and similar constraction. For example: • They dedicated their pens to the cause of peace. The above sentence is a form of figurative language metonymy form. The word ‘pens’ refers to the other name of the people. Because metonymy is the use of word or phrase for another to which it bears an important relation, thus the Pens is the other name for the people whom make a peace condition. • The white house has decided for the President has decided. 39 The above sentence is a form of figurative language metonymy form. The word ‘white house’ refers to the President. Because metonymy is the use of word or phrase for another to which it bears an important relation, thus the white house is the other name as the President whom able to make decision for good.

D. Strength and Weakness of Stylistics.

A stylistic approach leaves from assumption that the function of language is very important for literary work. Language is related to literature. If there is no 39 Laurence Urdang, The Random House Dictionary The English Language , New York: Random House, 1968, p. 191 34 language, there is no literature. The beauty of literary work is caused the ability of the author to exploit the literary work. So, it will appear strength and beauty. 40 A stylistic approach has strength and weakness. The strengths of stylistic approaches like:  Being able to look into the problem of using the language more deeply.  Being able to look into where the strength of literary work is reach, like in language side, concept, or correlation in both of them. The weaknesses of stylistic approaches like:  Striving for the basic of linguistics in order to get to commit research paper more clearly and detail.  If we do not carefully, it is easy to slip to be study of linguistics and it is released from the study of literature. 41

E. Message 1. The Definition of Message

A message in its most general meaning is an object of communication. It is something which provides information; it can also be this information itself. Therefore, its meaning is dependent upon the context in which it is used; the term 40 Atmazaki, Teori Sastra, Bandung: PT Angkasa, 1990, p. 80 41 Ibid, p. 85 35 may apply to both the information and its form. A communiqué is a brief report or statement released by a public agency. 42

2. In Communications Science.

More precisely, in communications science, a message is information which is sent from a source to a receiver. Some common definitions include: • Any thought or idea expressed in a language, prepared in a form suitable for transmission by any means of communication. • An arbitrary amount of information whose beginning and end are defined or implied. In communication between humans, messages can be verbal or nonverbal: • A verbal message is an exchange of information using words. Examples include face-to-face communication, telephone calls, voicemails, etc. • A nonverbal message is communicated through actions or behaviors rather than words. Examples include the use of body language and the actions made by an individual idea.

3. In Computer Science

There are two main senses of the word message in computer science: messages passed within software, which may or may not be human-readable, and 42 http:en.wikipedia.orgwikiMessages 36 human-readable messages delivered via computer software for person-to-person communication. Message passing is a form of communication used in concurrent and parallel computing, object-oriented programming, and interprocess communication, where communication is made by sending messages to recipients. In a related use of this sense of a message, in object-oriented programming languages such as Smalltalk or Java, a message is sent to an object, specifying a request for action. Instant messaging and e-mail are examples of computer software designed for delivering human- readable messages in formatted or unformatted text, from one person to another.

4. The Types of Messages a. Air Mail

Airmail or air mail is mail that is transported by aircraft. It typically arrives more quickly than surface mail, and usually costs more to send. Airmail may be the only option for sending mail to some destinations, such as overseas, if the mail cannot wait the time it would take to arrive by ship, sometimes weeks.

b. Air-speeded

The study of airmail is known as aerophilately. A postal service may sometimes opt to transport some regular mail by air, perhaps because other transportation is unavailable. It is usually impossible to know this by examining an envelope, and such items are not considered airmail. Generally, airmail would take a guaranteed and scheduled flight and arrive first, while air-speeded 37 mail would wait for a non-guaranteed and merely available flight and would arrive later than normal airmail. A letter sent via airmail may be called an aerogramme, aerogram, air letter or simply airmail letter. However, aerogramme and aerogram may also refer to a specific kind of airmail letter which is its own envelope; see aerogram. The choice to send a letter by air is indicated either by a handwritten note on the envelope, by the use of special labels called airmail etiquettes, or by the use of specially-marked envelopes. Special postage stamps may also be available, or required; the rules vary in different countries.

c. Message in a bottle.

A message in a bottle is a form of communication whereby a message is sealed in a container archetypically a glass bottle, but could be any medium, so long as it floats and remains waterproof and released into the sea or ocean. Such messages are not intended for a specific person, but to end up wherever the currents carry them. Because of their simplicity they are often associated with people stranded on a deserted island, attempting to be rescued. However, many people release such messages for pleasure, to see how far their message can travel and to make new friends. They are also used for scientific studies of ocean currents. The phrase message in a bottle has also come to refer to any message sent without an intended destination. 38

d. SMS

Short Message Service SMS is a communication service standardized in the GSM mobile communication system, using standardized communications protocols allowing the interchange of short text messages between mobile telephone devices. SMS text messaging is the most widely used data application on the planet, with 2.4 billion active users, or 74 of all mobile phone subscribers sending and receiving text messages on their phones. The SMS technology has facilitated the development and growth of text messaging. The connection between the phenomenon of text messaging and the underlying technology is so great that in parts of the world the term SMS is used as a synonym for a text message or the act of sending a text message, even when a different protocol is being used. SMS as used on modern handsets was originally defined as part of the GSM series of standards in 1985 as a means of sending messages of up to 160 characters including spaces, to and from GSM mobile handsets. Since then, support for the service has expanded to include alternative mobile standards such as ANSI CDMA networks and Digital AMPS, as well as satellite and landline networks. Most SMS messages are mobile-to-mobile text messages, though the standard supports other types of broadcast messaging as well.

e. Instant Messaging.

Instant messaging IM is a form of real-time communication between two or more people based on typed text. The text is conveyed via devices connected 39 over a network such as the Internet. Instant messaging IM are technologies that create the possibility of real-time text-based communication between two or more participants over the internet or some form of internal networkintranet. It is important to understand that what separates chat and instant messaging from technologies such as e-mail is the perceived synchronicity of the communication by the user - Chat happens in real-time. Some systems allow the sending of messages to people not currently logged on offline messages, thus removing much of the difference between Instant Messaging and e-mail. IM allows effective and efficient communication, featuring immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. In certain cases Instant Messaging involves additional features, which make it even more popular, i.e. to see the other party, e.g. by using web-cams, or to talk directly for free over the Internet. It is possible to save a conversation for later reference. Instant messages are typically logged in a local message history which closes the gap to the persistent nature of e-mails and facilitates quick exchange of information like URLs or document snippets which can be unwieldy when communicated via telephone.

F. Moral Message. 1. Definition of Moral.

A moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event. The moral may be left to the hearer, reader or viewer to determine for themselves, or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim. As an example of the latter, at the end of Aesops fable of the Tortoise and the Hare, in which the plodding and determined 40 tortoise wins a race against the much-faster yet extremely arrogant hare, the moral is slow and steady wins the race. The use of stock characters is a means of conveying the moral of the story by eliminating complexity of personality and so spelling out the issues arising in the interplay between the characters, enabling the writer to make clear the message. With more rounded characters, such as those typically found in Shakespeares plays, the moral may be more nuanced but no less present, and the writer may point it up in other ways. 43 Throughout the history of recorded literature, the majority of fictional writing has served not only to entertain but also to instruct, inform or improve their audiences or readership. In classical drama, for example, the role of the chorus was to comment on the proceedings and draw out a message for the audience to take away with them; while the novels of Charles Dickens are a vehicle for morals regarding the social and economic system of Victorian Britain. Morals have typically been more obvious in childrens literature, sometimes even being introduced with the phrase, The moral of the story is …. Such explicit techniques have grown increasingly out of fashion in modern storytelling, and are now usually only included for ironic purposes. As Oscar Wilde observes wryly, The good ended happily, and the bad unhappily. That is what Fiction means. Some examples are: Better to be safe than sorry, The evil deserves no aid, Be friends with whom you dont like, Dont judge people by the way they look, 43 http:www.answers.comtopicmoral 41 Sticks and stones will break my bones, but words will never hurt me and Slow and steady wins the race. 42 CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDING