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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, the researcher discusses some theories that underlie the topic of the research. This part is divided into two. First, it deals with the
theoretical description. Second, it deals with the theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
This part is concerned with a discussion on the instructional design model applied in this study and some theories related to this study. The instructional
design models applied in this study is Kemp’s model and the theories reviewed in this part are School-Based Curriculum, listening skill which consists of what
listening is, the principles of teaching listening, methodological models of teaching listening and task-based learning which consists of the definition of task,
types of task, and task-based learning framework.
1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model
It is important for a designer to know the models of instructional design as the guideline for designing materials. Besides, the models also tell a designer the
steps or stages in designing instructional materials. In this study, the researcher uses the instructional design model of Kemp as one of the basic theories and
principles in designing the materials.
In this book, Kemp 1977: 8 stated that the instructional design model is designed to supply answers to three questions, which are considered as the
essential elements of instructional technology as follows. a.
What must be learned? objectives b.
What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? activities and resources
c. How will we know when the required learning has taken place?
evaluation Kemp’s Instructional Design Model has eight stages. They are:
1 Determining the goals, the topics and the general purposes
To design materials, a designer should determine the goals, the topics, and the general purposes of the objectives. Kemp stated that there are three sources
for the goals. They are society, learners, and subject areas. Then, after determining the goals, a designer should select the topics. The topics should
be started from the simple ones to the complex ones. The topics should represent the goals and the general purposes of the objectives.
2 Observing learners’ characteristics
A designer should know about the learners’ characteristics, needs, capabilities, and interests for whom the materials are designed.
3 Determining the learning objectives
Since it concerns with the learning, a designer should mention the objectives of each topic clearly.
4 Listing the subject content
The subject content comprises the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudinal factors of any topic. These should be
arranged in good order so that it can support the learning. In this study, the writer not only takes the materials from the materials sources but also adds
some tasks which are suitable for students. 5
Developing the pre-assessments Pre-assessment should be conducted to know the capabilities that the
learners have achieved. There are two kinds of pre-assessment. They are prerequisite testing and pretesting. Prerequisite testing is conducted to know
the learners’ background knowledge of the topics. Then, pretesting is conducted to determine which of the objectives students have achieved.
6 Selecting the teachinglearning activities and instructional resources.
The appropriate teaching and learning activities should be selected by a designer. They should interest and suit learners to develop their language
skills. 7
Preparing support services Support services should also be considered in designing materials. Support
services consider about the planned program with other aspects of the institution, such as funds, facilities, equipments, and personnel.
8 Conducting the evaluation
According to Kemp’s instructional design, conducting the evaluation is the last step in designing materials. The evaluation is done to evaluate whether the
topics, the goals, the objectives are appropriate. The evaluation checked all the steps which were conducted by designer to know whether the whole
materials are well developed. The relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps based on Kemp’s
Model is described in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Model Kemp, 1977: 9
2. School-Based Curriculum
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