REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

4. The Principle of Using Instructional Media in Language Teaching

Instruction is provided in a learning situation. The features of this situation impose constraints upon what media may be most effective (Gagne, 1992: 206). The following are features of the intended learning situations that need to be taken into account in selecting media:

a. Communications to the learner delivered by the teacher (instructor) versus communications delivered via media for self-instruction

b. Learners possessing sufficient verbal comprehension ability to comprehend printed communications versus learners who have sufficient verbal comprehension ability

c. Communications delivered directly to the learner or learners versus communications broadcast from a central station

d. The performance to be learned is such that errors are serious (that is, dangerous, as in the case of airplane emergency procedures) versus performances whose potential errors are not serious

Each of these features imposes some limitations on the kinds of media appropriate. If instructor considers the relationship of media characteristics to the type of learning situation, he discovers a broad range of choices. This process of media choice is only the first step. One must then proceed to narrow the field to the few media that are capable of supporting instruction most effectively.

Beyond the consideration of requirements of the learning situation, models of media selection typically include three categories of factors Beyond the consideration of requirements of the learning situation, models of media selection typically include three categories of factors

a. Physical Factors The terms of the physical characteristics of the communications which are able to display make media differ from each other. Some media permits visual displays, and others do not. In teaching the identification of concrete concepts (shapes, objects) and spatial relationships (locations, distances), the property of visual display is usually used. In general, media have capability of presenting verbal displays, either as printed text or as audio messages. It is worth noting that print on paper is one of the least expensive media when printed text otherwise appropriate. The capability of presenting sound is commonly occurring dispute of media. Verbal messages and presentation of other varieties of sound, such as environmental uses and music, play roles in media choices. Color may be employed in connection with pictorial displays. Research findings indicate that color does not increase the effectiveness of instruction, except when it is an essential feature of what must be learned (Schramm 1997).

b. The Learning Task The type of performance expected of learners as a result of instruction (the learning outcome) needs to be considered with some care in choosing media for instruction. The most apparent media differences probably appear over the interactive quality. Precise b. The Learning Task The type of performance expected of learners as a result of instruction (the learning outcome) needs to be considered with some care in choosing media for instruction. The most apparent media differences probably appear over the interactive quality. Precise

c. Learning Variables When selecting media, the characteristics of learners must be taken into account. ATI has showed the effects of instruction on learners differing in such traits as anxiety and locus of control. Some educators are convinced that learners differing in “learning styles” may benefit most from media presentations that match their styles. What these learning style differences are and whether they may be effective with different media has not been definitely established. if the styles were recognized, it might not be feasible or economical to provide sufficient parallel media packages for each lesson to accommodate all of the differing styles.

d. The Assumed Learning Environment The other set of factors in media selection is based upon administrative considerations rather than technical ones. The practical use of media varies with such features of the learning environment such as:

1) The amount of school budget

2) Size of the class

3) Capability for developing new materials

4) Availability of radio, television, and other media equipment

5) Teacher capabilities and availability for an instructional design effort

6) Availability of modular materials or individualized, performance based instruction

7) Attitudes of principal and teachers toward innovations

8) School architecture

e. The Assumed Development Environment Apparently, it would be useless to plan to design a delivery system (and the attendant media) if the design and the development resources were not sufficient for the task. That is, the time, the budget, and personal available will influence the probability of success in designing specified delivery systems. For example, the kinds of personal available will determine the kinds of media that can be developed successfully. More than this, the personnel available will determine the kind of design model that is feasible for the situation. Carey and Briggs (1977) have discussed more how budgets, time, and personnel influence not only what instruction can be developed, but also what design models and what team management systems are appropriate to the task.

f. The Economy and the Culture

One will hope to choose media that are acceptable for the users and within the budget and technology resources available in designing an instructional system. Behavior toward various media may distinct between urban and rural people or among ethnic or socioeconomic subgroups. To utilize radio and television, some countries or regions would not have the technological skills or the electric power, whereas these media would be practical and acceptable at other places. Religious or cultural attitudes may also determine local reactions to various media. Print media may emerge high prestige in one area, yet radio and television have greater favor in another. All of these factors should be considered if the media selected for a delivery system are to find acceptance.

Inside boundaries of acceptance for various media, further consideration can then be given to cost effectiveness. Under one circumstance, cost may be the overriding factor, yet under another circumstance, a required level of effectiveness may be considered first, after which cost are determined.

g. Practical Factors Considering that the media under perception are acceptable to the users and are within their capabilities, a number of detailed practical factors remain to be considered in order to choose media that are effective and also convenient. The suitability of media for use in practical situations may depend on such factors as size of group, type g. Practical Factors Considering that the media under perception are acceptable to the users and are within their capabilities, a number of detailed practical factors remain to be considered in order to choose media that are effective and also convenient. The suitability of media for use in practical situations may depend on such factors as size of group, type

Meanwhile, according to Brown (1977: 71), there are seven principles of media used in teaching and learning.

a. No one medium is best for all purposes

b. Recognize that no one medium, procedure, or student experience is necessarily best for learning a particular subject, for acquiring a particular skill, or for developing a specified desirable attitude or level of appreciation. Some subjects appear to be better suited for presentation by one medium rather than another. A particular example of optimum fit between one kind of medium and the subject studied is the use of audio recordings in learning foreign languages. It is believed that it can be brought to life and students can be motivated to learn the facts and concepts of the subject by the use of a variety of media, books, motion pictures, still pictures, and maps and globes. However, it is possible that not all students need such variety. Instead, some students may prefer to learn history through reading historical novels or textbooks or through listening to recordings or participating in simulations.

c. Media uses should be consistent with objectives It is important to make sure the uses of media are consistent with the objectives. If the chief purpose in using a motion-picture film with a c. Media uses should be consistent with objectives It is important to make sure the uses of media are consistent with the objectives. If the chief purpose in using a motion-picture film with a

a fact test. For high moment of student interest, such testing may kill an otherwise favorable attitude and create aversive reactions to the topic and even to the study of the history.

d. Users must familiarize themselves with media content To adapt materials to specific program purposes, it is important to know them thoroughly their content, how they may be used to best benefit, the levels of difficulty in relation to competencies of students and conditions of availability, that is when and for how long teacher have them. Besides examining media, also take into account mode teachers have in mind: large-group instruction, small-group activities providing for interaction, or independent study.

e. Media must be appropriate for the mode of instruction

f. Be aware that the results of using media are also influenced by the student experiences, preferences, individual interests and capabilities, and learning styles. For example, students reading well and enjoying reading may be expected to take benefit more from reading books than those who do not. Yet to attract and keep the interest of slower readers and to help them understand and profit from what they read, teacher may need to introduce, along with print items, various correlated audiovisual media.

g. Media are neither good nor bad simply because they are either concrete or abstract

h. Resources and learning experiences are not necessarily good or bad simply because they are presented through concrete or abstract means. It is more nearly accurate to take into account media resources as having special (but not necessarily unique) benefits for certain teaching goals. Commonly, one or more of some different items of the same class dealing with the same subject may be used to accomplish a particular goal. In such cases, the values of items selected may depend more upon how they are used than upon any built-in advantages or disadvantages related to concreteness or abstractness.

i. Media should be chosen objectively rather than on the basis of personal preference or bias j. Never let your own preferences for particular media stand in the way of providing learning experiences students need. Sometimes, teachers say that they won’t use a particular film anymore since they have tired of it. If teachers have ever said this, perhaps they ought to develop a new point of view about the film in question. Remember that in all probability, your students will not have seen it and in any case, it may

be the very best means of providing the experience in teacher’s mind. k. Physical conditions surrounding uses of media affect significantly the results be the very best means of providing the experience in teacher’s mind. k. Physical conditions surrounding uses of media affect significantly the results