The use of instructional media in teaching and learning process

Arranged by: WASTUTI ARIYANI K2206038

THESIS

Presented as Partial Requirements for the Undergraduate Degree of Education in Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY

SURAKARTA 2010

APPROVAL

This thesis is approved by the consultants to be examined by the Board of Examiners of Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University.

Approved by

Consultant I, Consultant II,

Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd Drs. Muh. Asrori, M. Pd

NIP: 19610124 198702 1 001 NIP: 19601015 198702 1 001

This thesis is examined by the Board of the Examiners of Teacher Training and Education Faculty of Sebelas Maret University and accepted as Partial fulfilment for the Requirements for the Undergraduate Degree of Education in English.

Day : Date :

The board of Examiners:

1. Chairman: Drs. A. Handoko Pudjobroto (………………..) NIP. 19581026 198803 1 001

2. Secretary: Teguh Sarosa, S.S., M. Hum. (………………..) NIP. 19730205 200604 1 001

3. Examiner I: Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M. Pd (………………..) NIP. 19610124 198702 1 001

4. Examiner II: Drs. Muh. Asrori, M. Pd (………………..) NIP. 19601015 198702 1 001

Teacher Training and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University of Surakarta Dean,

Prof. Dr. H. Muhammad Furqon Hidayatullah, M. Pd. NIP. 1600727 198702 1 001

ABSTRACT

Wastuti Ariyani. K2206038: The Use of Instructional Media in Teaching and

Learning Process (A Naturalistic Study at English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University Surakarta in

Academic Year 2009/2010). Teacher Training and Education Faculty, Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta 2010.

This study is based on the problems of the use of instructional media that have not been optimally used yet. It focuses on how the instructional media has been used in teaching and learning so far. It also identifies the effect of using the instructional media in teaching and learning process toward the students.

The method used in this research is a descriptive qualitative method. The researcher uses descriptive method because the data are in the form of words so that the data are best analyzed by describing them. Further, the researcher uses qualitative method since the description of the data is analyzed and interpreted in order to find out the meaning from the data. The sources of data of the research are events, informants, and document analysis. The data are taken from the interview conducted with two students and three lecturers from this department. The technique of collecting the data is a non-measurement technique because the data are in the form of words.

Techniques in collecting the data are qualitative method. In qualitative method, the writer used observational and non-observational techniques.

Observational techniques consist of observation while non-observational techniques consist of interviews and document analysis. The results of the

observation and interview are in the form of field notes. The result of qualitative data is analyzed in three stages namely the data reduction, data presentation/data

display, and conclusion drawing. The results of this research show that the uses of instructional media have run well although some of them are not used any longer or have not been optimally used yet. Most of the lecturers have collaborated their teaching and leaning process with the instructional media provided as well as the students. There are some factors determining the process of selecting instructional media in teaching and learning process. There are also some factors that cause the use of instructional media cannot be optimalized yet. In the teaching and learning process itself, the lecturers face technical and functional problems. Toward the students, the use of instructional media contributes positive effects that are promoting students’ motivation and attention. Moreover, it helps the students in the process of understanding the subject matter.

At the end of the research, the writer wants to give some suggestions that this department, the lecturers, and the students maintain utilizing the instructional media that have been available in proper way.

MOTTO

“Fight to work for your present world as if you would live endlessly, and do your

best for the hereafter as if you would die tomorrow”

The key to realize a dream is to focus not on success but significance - and then even the small steps and little victories along your path will take on greater meaning.

(Oprah Winfrey)

DEDICATION

With deep profound love, this research is devoted to:

1. Her beloved father and mother.

2. Her brother and sister

2. Her best friends: Zee, Vina, Ciwita, Risti, Kristin, all of her friends of English’06, cah kos, and much more.

3. Her alma mater UNS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Alhamdulillahirobbil’alamin. All praise and thanks are only for Allah SWT, The Almighty God that gives His blessing and His help so the writer can finish her thesis.

In the process of her study, she received support, contribution, and assistance from many people. Thus, there are honorable people that are important to the writer. She can only express her gratitude to:

1. The Dean of Teacher Training and Education Faculty.

2. The Head of English Department.

3. Prof. Dr. Joko Nurkamto, M.Pd, as the first consultant.

4. Drs. Muh. Asrori, M. Pd, as the second consultant.

5. The lecturers in English Education Program.

6. Her family, friends, and those who are impossibly all mentioned.

Nothing is perfect except Allah S.W.T, and neither is this thesis. The researcher accepts gratefully every comment and suggestion. However, she hopes that this thesis will be useful to the improvement of the English teaching and learning.

Surakarta, January 2010

Wastut

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Field notes of Observation .......................................................... 78 Appendix 2. Field notes of Interview ............................................................. 102 Appendix 3. Instrument of Observation .......................................................... 136 Appendix 4. Instrument of Interview with the lecturers ................................ 137 Appendix 5. Instrument of Interview with the students ................................... 139 Appendix 6. List of English Department Inventory ........................................ 141

LIST OF TABLE

Table 2.1 Kinds of Instructional Media…………………………………………..25 Table 3.1 The Schedule of Doing the Research ………………………………….40 Table 3.2 The schedule of observation……………………………………………43

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 2.1. Teaching System Diagram …………………………………………..18 Figure 2.2 A diagrammatic representation of relationship between

theory and practice…………………………………………………….21 Figure 3.1 The Diagram of Interactive Model of Analysis ………………………46

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Teaching and learning process is regarded as a complex system as it consists of some components connected one to another and works together to achieve certain learning outcomes. Those components have to get connected one to another as they build a complex system. The absence of one component may affect the whole process of teaching and learning process. The maximum target or desired learning outcomes in the end of the course or lesson cannot

be achieved when one or more of supporting factors do not exist. There are many factors which determine the success of a teaching and learning process. Generally, it is divided into two major factors: physical and psychological factors. For instance, the lack of facilities and human resource still become be achieved when one or more of supporting factors do not exist. There are many factors which determine the success of a teaching and learning process. Generally, it is divided into two major factors: physical and psychological factors. For instance, the lack of facilities and human resource still become

Those conditions of teaching and learning process are still quite different from the definition of learning proposed by Smaldino. He states that learning is the development of new knowledge, skill or attitudes (2005). An individual interacts with information and the environment. The learning environment includes the physical facilities, the psychological atmosphere, instructional technology, media and methods. Each elements of learning environment build a system which can not be separated one to another. It means that inexistence of one component in learning environment may create an obstacle in conducting teaching and learning process. They work together as a system to achieve the goal, that is the desired learning outcomes in the end of the course.

Meanwhile, according to Nurkamto (1999), the components of teaching and learning process can be identified as follows. The first one is planning. The planning process consists of lesson plan and curriculum that will guide the teacher in order that the objectives of the study can be stated clearly since the very beginning. The second one is implementation. The implementation process Meanwhile, according to Nurkamto (1999), the components of teaching and learning process can be identified as follows. The first one is planning. The planning process consists of lesson plan and curriculum that will guide the teacher in order that the objectives of the study can be stated clearly since the very beginning. The second one is implementation. The implementation process

Those three components in teaching and learning process will determine the success in achieving the desired learning outcomes. One of technical supports having an important role in teaching and learning process is media or instructional media. Heinich states that medium is a channel of communication (1989: 6). Derived from the Latin word for “between”, the term refers to “anything carrying information between a source and a receiver”. He emphasizes that communication itself is an interpretive transaction between or among individuals. The sender of a message encodes it according his or her skill and knowledge (field of experience), and the receiver decodes it according to his or her field of experience. In teaching and learning, the feedback process, however, the receiver (student) does more than decode the message. He or she must also encode his or her interpretation of the signal for relay back to the sender (teacher), who, in turn, must decode it. Eventually, receiver becomes sender and sender becomes receiver and both interpret the message according to their fields of experience. On the other words, it means that there is a message exchange process between teacher and students Those three components in teaching and learning process will determine the success in achieving the desired learning outcomes. One of technical supports having an important role in teaching and learning process is media or instructional media. Heinich states that medium is a channel of communication (1989: 6). Derived from the Latin word for “between”, the term refers to “anything carrying information between a source and a receiver”. He emphasizes that communication itself is an interpretive transaction between or among individuals. The sender of a message encodes it according his or her skill and knowledge (field of experience), and the receiver decodes it according to his or her field of experience. In teaching and learning, the feedback process, however, the receiver (student) does more than decode the message. He or she must also encode his or her interpretation of the signal for relay back to the sender (teacher), who, in turn, must decode it. Eventually, receiver becomes sender and sender becomes receiver and both interpret the message according to their fields of experience. On the other words, it means that there is a message exchange process between teacher and students

Meanwhile according to Brown, almost in every case, media are regarded as central elements in the approach to systematic instruction (1977: 2). In considerations of media, another phrase representing a stage in the evolution of knowledge about teaching is “instructional technology”. Many years ago, media were called “audiovisual aids” those are physical things-tools for instruction. It can be concluded that instructional media become one of components having a crucial role as it can be utilized to help teacher in delivering the material based on the technique used. It can be used to encourage students to get involved in teaching and learning process in order that they will be able to communicate using the language learned.

The development of information and technology somehow is also followed with the development of instructional media as well. Recently, the development of instructional media has grown rapidly. As an institution that has aim to produce highly qualified teachers, the Teacher Training and Education Faculty of UNS Surakarta in the past few months has supported some of its departments with more sophisticated instructional media. It is one of many efforts to improve its quality in order that teaching and learning process can be conducted in more creative ways and various techniques.

One of the departments which has been given those new instructional media is English Department of FKIP UNS. However, in the beginning there have been a lot of instructional media in English Department of FKIP UNS. Some of

the examples are whiteboard, OHP, Television, radio tape, computer, LCD, and so on. Yet the number and quality of those stuffs was still limited and was not adequate to support the whole teaching and learning process. In the last one year, more sophisticated instructional media have completed the facilities in English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty Sebelas Maret University Surakarta. Not only has the development of its capabilities been increased, but also the number of it. Sophisticated instructional media have been functioned to support the teaching and learning process in the classroom. In the past few years, each classroom has not been completed with computer and LCD. Nowadays, it has been enriched with more instructional media, such as LCD and computer in each classroom, internet connection (hotspot area) in the basement, and many more. Moreover, this department now has two laboratories. The first one is called language laboratory and the other one is multimedia laboratory. Both of those two labs have been supported with great facilities to get the teaching and learning process run well.

As an institution having aim to produce good and qualified teacher, the existence of sophisticated Instructional Media is one of the requirements that has to be filled. Moreover, it also enriches the students’ knowledge and ability to use the instructional media as they are prepared to be a teacher after finishing their study from this department. In the future, they have to be able to use the instructional media provided in the school institution where they will work effectively and creatively as well as they can. It means that instructional media As an institution having aim to produce good and qualified teacher, the existence of sophisticated Instructional Media is one of the requirements that has to be filled. Moreover, it also enriches the students’ knowledge and ability to use the instructional media as they are prepared to be a teacher after finishing their study from this department. In the future, they have to be able to use the instructional media provided in the school institution where they will work effectively and creatively as well as they can. It means that instructional media

In the teaching and learning process, instructional media become something very helpful and useful for the lecturer and the students as well. They help the lecturer deliver the material given and attract the students’ attention and focus in the class. Moreover, it enables lecturers to present different materials in various ways and techniques depending on the context and situation. Besides that, the lecturers can work more efficiently since they can get a lot of kinds of materials in the easier way particularly by using the computer and its internet connection. For the students, it gives them a chance to practice teaching by utilizing the device provided in the class so that they have the same chance as much as the lecturers have. The existence of free internet connection or hot spot also contributes a significant advantage for them in the process of searching some data or information dealing with their assignment or merely increasing their knowledge for other field of study .

However, there are some of the instructional media provided that are not used any longer or are rarely used. It seems that those instructional media have not been used optimally yet. Moreover, some lecturers have not used the instructional media yet provided in the teaching and learning process effectively. In fact, there is significant difference of contribution that can be observed between those who teach with various techniques and who do not. Meanwhile, the students also will achieve different experiences when some of them use the instructional media and the others do not. The learning situation collaborated with instructional media However, there are some of the instructional media provided that are not used any longer or are rarely used. It seems that those instructional media have not been used optimally yet. Moreover, some lecturers have not used the instructional media yet provided in the teaching and learning process effectively. In fact, there is significant difference of contribution that can be observed between those who teach with various techniques and who do not. Meanwhile, the students also will achieve different experiences when some of them use the instructional media and the others do not. The learning situation collaborated with instructional media

However, the development of instructional media emerges some problems that might create nuisances in teaching and learning process. The black out often happens in the middle of teaching and learning process that absolutely interrupt the concentration and focus of the lecturer and the students. Moreover, it may also cause serious damage to the instructional media as they often turn off without the proper mechanism. The preparation before using those instructional media also often decreases the amount of time for teaching and learning process itself. Sometimes, some lecturers spend at least fifteen minutes to install their own laptop to the device or instructional media in the classroom such as LCD.

Considering the fact that instructional media is still being a new facility in the English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty and they have not been optimally used yet, the writer is interested in studying about the use of Instructional Media in teaching and learning process in English Department of Teacher Training and Education Faculty Surakarta. In addition, it is appropriate in the discipline which is now studied by the writer.

B. Problem Statements

Based on the background of the study above, the emerging problems can

be identified as follows:

1. How is the use of instructional media in teaching and learning process at English Department FKIP UNS so far?

2. How is the effect of using instructional media in teaching and learning process toward the students?

C. The Objectives of the Study

The objectives that will be achieved through this research are:

1. To find out how the instructional media are used in teaching and

learning process at English Department FKIP UNS so far

2. To identify the effect of using instructional media in teaching and learning process toward the students

D. The Benefit of the Study

The result of the study is expected to be able to give some contribution for the lecturers, the students, and the researcher. The following are the significance contributions of the study:

1. The lecturer It is expected that through this research the lecturers are able to use the instructional media provided more effectively based on the technique 1. The lecturer It is expected that through this research the lecturers are able to use the instructional media provided more effectively based on the technique

2. The students The students will know more about the importance, the variety and benefit of the instructional media provided in their school’s environment. They might be more creative in the teaching and learning process as they have adequate spaces and chances to express their thoughts and ability dealing with the material studied. It will also train them to get used to the variety of instructional media and its usage in order that they will not face any difficulties when they teach as a real teacher in actual class in the future.

3. The researcher As one of students of English Department FKIP UNS, the writer hopes that this research will be able to give valuable information dealing with the usage, the strengths, and the weaknesses of instructional media in teaching and learning process. Moreover, it is hoped that the other researchers can have an additional knowledge about Instructional Media dealing with its varieties, strength, and weaknesses in teaching and learning English for further research in the future.

CHAPTER II REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE

C. The Nature of English Language Teaching

1. Language Learning

There are many definitions of language learning proposed by some experts. The definition is firstly stated by Kimble and Garmezi (in Brown, 1994:7). They define learning as a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and are the result of reinforced practice. From this definition, it can

be broken down:

a. Learning is acquisition or “getting”

b. Learning is retention of information or skill

c. Retention implies storage system, memory, cognitive organization

d. Learning involves active, conscious, focus on, and activity upon events outside or inside organism

e. Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forget

f. Learning involves some forms of practice, perhaps reinforced practice

g. Learning is a change of behavior Similarly, Klein (1996) adds that language learning is an experimental process resulting in a relatively permanent change in behavior that cannot be g. Learning is a change of behavior Similarly, Klein (1996) adds that language learning is an experimental process resulting in a relatively permanent change in behavior that cannot be

Meanwhile, Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983) in Richard and Rodgers (2001: 156) state that language learning is learning to communicate. It is also supported by Diane Larsen (2000: 127) who states that learning to use language form appropriately is an important part of communicative competence. It is based on a theory of language as communication in communicative approach. Language learning is learning to communicate.

Tudor adds (1996: 39) that language learners grow out of the general approach to language learning which is active, inquiry, and attentive, and can only be acquired interactively. Hence, some factors making an effective set of learning strategies depend on a number of factors such as the task (the useful activity or strategy), the learning stage, the context, individual styles, and cultural differences in cognitive learning styles. In contrary to those statements behaviorism, like structural linguists, view language learning as Tudor adds (1996: 39) that language learners grow out of the general approach to language learning which is active, inquiry, and attentive, and can only be acquired interactively. Hence, some factors making an effective set of learning strategies depend on a number of factors such as the task (the useful activity or strategy), the learning stage, the context, individual styles, and cultural differences in cognitive learning styles. In contrary to those statements behaviorism, like structural linguists, view language learning as

Based on the definitions above, it can be concluded that language learning is an active process and conscious interaction resulting permanent change in order that the learner will be able to use the language in real communication. From those explanation, in this study, the writer follows the communicative approach that view the language as learning to use the language in communication. Hopefully, in the end of the learning process, the students are able to use the target language i.e. English communicatively in four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

2. Language Teaching

Language teaching is different from language learning. Anderson and Burns (1989: 7 in Elliot et all, 1996: 6) state teaching can be considered as a process since teaching involves action. Teaching can also be regarded as an interpersonal activity, since teachers interact with one or more students. The interaction can be bi-directional which means teachers influence students and vice versa. It is also known as reciprocal interaction. In addition, teaching is characterized intentional. It means when teachers teach, they have a purpose.

Considering those attributes, Anderson and Burns (1989) provide the following useful definition of teaching. Teaching is an interpersonal, interactive activity, typically involving verbal communication, which is Considering those attributes, Anderson and Burns (1989) provide the following useful definition of teaching. Teaching is an interpersonal, interactive activity, typically involving verbal communication, which is

The aim of language teaching is to develop student’s communicative competence. Language teaching should be communicative in order to get better product. One of the clearest presentations of this matter has come from Littlewood. He says that one of the most characteristics features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect of language. The communicative view of language teaching is communicative ability (1988: 1). Similarly, Brown (2000: 14) states that language teaching is teaching which stresses on the importance of self esteem of students cooperatively learning together of developing individual strategies for success and above all of focusing on the communicative process in language learning

Meanwhile, Stern (1996: 21) defines language teaching as the activities intended to bring about language learning. Sometimes, Illich (1971 in Stern 1996: 21) also said that an informal method of deschooling teaching the language in unplanned situation is more effectively than formal classroom instruction. Hence a good teaching theory would meet the conditions and needs of learners in the best possible ways (Stern, 1983: 21).

From the explanation above, it can be concluded that language teaching is an interpersonal, interactive activity, typically involving verbal From the explanation above, it can be concluded that language teaching is an interpersonal, interactive activity, typically involving verbal

3. Communicative Competence

Chomsky’s view of what it means to know a language is reflected in his distinction between linguistic competence and linguistic performance. In Aspect of the Theory of Syntax, (1965) Chomsky writes: ‘Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a

completely homogenous speech community, who knows its language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance. The perfect knowledge referred to here is the mastery of the abstract system of rules by which a person is able to understand and produce any and all of the well-formed sentences of his language, i.e. his linguistic competence. The actual use of language, affected by what he terms grammatically irrelevant conditions, and identified with the criterion of acceptability, not grammatically, is the domain of linguistic performance. (Chomsky 1965: 3)

He considers that samples of speech and writing obtained from native speakers should not be the data on which linguist worked, since they contain errors in performance and are therefore misleading. He also said that a generative grammar was an attempt to “characterize…the knowledge of the language that provides the basis for actual use of language by a speaker- hearer”. He later made an even stronger claim, to the effect that linguistic competence meant that the rules of grammar were internalized in the head of He considers that samples of speech and writing obtained from native speakers should not be the data on which linguist worked, since they contain errors in performance and are therefore misleading. He also said that a generative grammar was an attempt to “characterize…the knowledge of the language that provides the basis for actual use of language by a speaker- hearer”. He later made an even stronger claim, to the effect that linguistic competence meant that the rules of grammar were internalized in the head of

Meanwhile, Habermas (1970) in Munby (1998: 11) states that communicative competence relates to an ideal speech situation in the same way that linguistic competence relates to the abstract system of linguistic rules. The dialogue-constitutive universals at the same time generate and describe the form of inter-subjectivity which makes mutuality of understanding possible.

These are the four sectors of communicative competence stated by Hymes (1971) in Munby (1998: 15):

a. Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible;

b. Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available;

c. Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated;

d. Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done. Those four sectors of his communicative competence reflect the speaker-hearer’s grammatical

(formally possible), psycholinguistic (implementationally feasible), sociocultural (contextually appropriate) and de facto (actually occurring) knowledge and ability for use. In sum, the goal of a broad theory of competence can be said to show the ways in which the systematically possible, the feasible, and the appropriate are linked to produce (formally possible), psycholinguistic (implementationally feasible), sociocultural (contextually appropriate) and de facto (actually occurring) knowledge and ability for use. In sum, the goal of a broad theory of competence can be said to show the ways in which the systematically possible, the feasible, and the appropriate are linked to produce

Cooper’s (1968) in Munby (1998: 16) view of communicative competence is very like Hymes’ although he concerns only with the sociolinguistic and grammatical parameters. He reinforces Hymes’ point that effective communication requires more than linguistic competence: “To communicate effectively, a speaker must know not only how to produce any and all grammatical utterances of a language, but also how to use them appropriately. The speaker must know what to say, with whom, and when, and where.

Another linguist with an essentially Hymnesia view of communicative competence, although deriving more from rhetoric and discourse analysis, is Widdowson (1971 and 1975 in Munby, 1998: 17). He disagrees with the Chomsky/Katz and Postal view of performance as a residual category for everything unsystematic and therefore not accountable under competence, since some of their so-called performance features are in fact systematic and should therefore be regarded as part of a person’s competence. A speaker’s competence includes knowing how to recognize and how to use sentences to perform what he calls rhetorical acts - e.g. defining, classifying, promising, warning, etc.

Jakobovits, whose reasons for rejecting the Standard Theory view of (linguistic) competence accord broadly with Hymes, Cooper, and Widdowson, specifies four aspects of knowledge that he considers part of person’s Jakobovits, whose reasons for rejecting the Standard Theory view of (linguistic) competence accord broadly with Hymes, Cooper, and Widdowson, specifies four aspects of knowledge that he considers part of person’s

Meanwhile, Canale (1983) in Yalden (1987: 20) writes the nature of linguistic communication as follows:

a. Is a form of social interaction, and is therefore normally acquired and used in social interaction;

b. Involves a high degree of unpredictability and creativity in form and message;

c. Takes place in discourse and sociocultural contexts which provide constraints on appropriate language use and also clues as to correct interpretations of utterances;

d. Is carried out under limiting psychological and other conditions such as memory constraints, fatigue, and other distractions;

e. Always has a purpose (for example, to establish social relations, to persuade, or to promise);

f. Involves authentic, as opposed to textbook-contrived language; and

g. Is judged as successful or not on the basis of actual outcomes. Taking into account to this concept of linguistic communication, Canale and Swain (1980) provide a specification of three interacting factors. Canale (1983) in Yalen (1987: 20) later subdivided one of these factors, listing a total of four areas of knowledge and skill:

a. Grammatical competence (mastery of the language code) a. Grammatical competence (mastery of the language code)

c. Discourse competence (mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve unity of a spoken or written text)

d. Strategic competence (mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies used to compensate for breakdowns in communication, and to make communication more effective. ( Canale, 1983: 9-10)

4. Teaching as a System Teaching as a system can be described in the following diagram (Nurkamto 1999):

TEACHING SYSTEMS

Implementation Development

Planning

br

Teacher Material

c Process t ul

Lesson cons

Student

Media Learning

Plan Outcomes truct

ion

Method and Model of Learning

Learning Program Evaluation

Figure 2.1. Teaching System Diagram From the diagram above, it can be seen that teaching process consists

of some steps and components working together to achieve certain learning outcomes. Each components depends one to another as they work as a system.

According to Gino (1997), there are four subsystems in teaching. Those are follows:

a. School School factor covers: i.

School organization culture ii.

School quality indicators iii.

Institution context

b. Teacher

The teachers should have professionalism qualification as follows:

i. Knowledge of the subject ii.

Pedagogic Knowledge iii.

Personal Knowledge

c. Learning Process Learning process factors cover: i.

Learning model selection ii.

The development of learning quality The development of learning quality

d. Students Students’ factors cover the understanding toward:

i. Learning concept ii.

Learning types iii.

Learning motivation

5. The Characteristics of Effective Teaching

In essence, good teaching is neither exclusively art nor essentially science, but rather a combination of both. (Ornstein, 2000:5) Effective teaching is also clearly defined in Government Rule especially in Education and Culture No. 19/2005:

Pembelajaran yang efektif adalah pembelajaran dilaksanakan secara interaktif, inspiratif, menyenangkan, menantang, memotivasi peserta

didik untuk berpartisipasi aktif, serta memberikan ruang yang cukup bagi prakarsa, kreativitas, dan kemandirian sesuai dengan bakat,

minat, dan perkembangan fisik serta psikologis peserta didik

Based on the definition above, the effective teaching is a process which is conducted interactively, challenging, motivating the students to actively participate and provide adequate chance for the creativity and independency according to their talents interest, and the physical and psychological growth of the students. It means that teacher should be able to build a good quality of teaching that enable students to get involved actively in the teaching and learning process as the way for them to use the language learned in real communication.

Meanwhile, according to Ornstein (2000: 3), effective teaching is defined as the actions of professionally trained persons that enhance the cognitive, personal, social and physical development of students. This definition reflects aspects of both the traditional and humanistic viewpoints about the goals of education. The underlying characteristics that make up effective teaching according to Ornstein are described as follow:

Theoretical Models

Principles

Methods

Strategies, Procedures, and Techniques

Figure 2.2 A diagrammatic representation of the relationship between theory and practice. The more abstract aspects of the model are at the top of the schema. The more practical and

applied are at the bottom of the schema.

At the highest level of the schema are the theoretical models. In a scientific sense, a theory is a “set of formal expressions that provides a complete and consistent characterization of well-articulated domain” (Reber, 1985 in Ornstein 2000). In plain terms, a theory (or a theoretical model) is a set of ideas or thought or propositions of an abstract kind used to guide methods, select principles and guide practical decision-making. For example, At the highest level of the schema are the theoretical models. In a scientific sense, a theory is a “set of formal expressions that provides a complete and consistent characterization of well-articulated domain” (Reber, 1985 in Ornstein 2000). In plain terms, a theory (or a theoretical model) is a set of ideas or thought or propositions of an abstract kind used to guide methods, select principles and guide practical decision-making. For example,

a particular method of teaching. Non-scientific theories also have a place in this schema. These theories deal with values, ideals, and goals. Some teachers accentuate social goals and others stress academic goals.

At the second level are the principles. These are derived from theoretical models. In this context principles are generalizations used as guidelines for action. The focus is on teaching principles. One of the example is “Teachers should give immediate feedback to learners after they have attempted a learning task”. Competent teachers act to apply a set of sound teaching principles because they understand that in doing so improvement in student learning is likely. The less competent teacher applies an inferior set of principles, the result being poor learning.

The third level of the schema is methods. Methods are sets of teaching plans, strategies and techniques used to organize classroom practice. Instructional methods deal with the step-by-step procedures used in instruction. Methods also deal with the organization of instructional programs for the purpose of achieving curriculum goals. The methods level is less abstract than the models and principles levels referred to above and is closer to the practical world of daily classroom teaching.

At the lowest level are strategies, procedures, and techniques. Strategies are small-scale plans for teaching. They are highly specific teaching operations that are used to guide the activities of the classroom teacher. Strategies in the context of teaching are used to enhance and facilitate the At the lowest level are strategies, procedures, and techniques. Strategies are small-scale plans for teaching. They are highly specific teaching operations that are used to guide the activities of the classroom teacher. Strategies in the context of teaching are used to enhance and facilitate the

The characteristics of effective teaching proposed by Nurkamto (2009) are stated as follows:

a. Guided with a good curriculum

b. Having valuable hope

c. Lesson/ study oriented

d. Having clear objectives

e. The progress of the study is monitored efficiently

f. Having continual remedial

g. Effective use of learning time

h. Having high standard class

i. Having good personal relationship j. Having reward system According to Susilohadi (2009), the characteristics of effective teaching are:

a. Having clear objectives

b. Achieving the goals b. Achieving the goals

d. Well structured

e. Giving students adequate chance to communicate

D. Instructional Media

1. The Definition of Instructional Media

Media refers to a carrier. Smaldino (1996: 9), defines a medium (plural, media) is a means of communication and source of information. Derived from the Latin words meaning “between”, the term refers to anything that carries information between a source and a receiver. Examples include video, television, diagrams, printed materials, computer program and instructors. These are considered instructional media when they provide messages with an instructional purpose. The purpose of media is to facilitate communication and learning.

Meanwhile, Heinich (1989: 7) also defines media (medium, singular) are carriers of information between source and a receiver. Instructional media are “a means by which information can be delivered to a learner intended to change behavior”. Each medium represents a means of connecting learners, the teacher, and the instruction. Media also refers to physical means. Reisers Meanwhile, Heinich (1989: 7) also defines media (medium, singular) are carriers of information between source and a receiver. Instructional media are “a means by which information can be delivered to a learner intended to change behavior”. Each medium represents a means of connecting learners, the teacher, and the instruction. Media also refers to physical means. Reisers

Asosiasi Pendidikan Nasional (National Education Association/NEA) has its own definition of media. Media is a form of communication whether in printed form or audiovisual and its devices. Media should be able to be manipulated, observable, audible, and readable. Whatever boundaries given, there is similarity between those boundaries that media is all of things that can

be used to deliver message from the sender to the receiver in order to stimulate thought, feeling, attention and interest of the students to build a learning process.

To sum up, the term instructional media refers to physical means of communication carrying information between source and a receiver whether in printed form or audiovisual and its devices that is manipulated to enrich teaching and learning process .

2. The Kinds of Instructional Media

There are many kinds of instructional media usually used in teaching and learning process. According to Newby (1996: 17), the kinds of instructional media with attributes and examples will be described in the following table:

Example Media Real objects

Instructional

Key attributes

A living animal and models

Actual item or

three

A plastic model of the human eye

dimensional representation

Text

Written words

Biology textbook Written material from an electronic encyclopedia

video on the

pictures

procedures to insert memory chips in a computer Video on how to seek shelter during

a tornado

Audio

Sound

Audio CD of an inspirational speech Audiotape of

directions for completing a process Graphics

Projected overhead transparency of (visuals,

Pictures, line

the state of South Carolina slides,

drawing, maps

Map of the organizational structure overhead

of a school corporation transparencies)

Multimedia

Combination

Computer program on comparative

of

various

culture that incorporates pictures,

media forms

textual descriptions, native music, and short videos of individuals speaking different languages

Table 2.1 Kinds of Instructional Media

According to Smaldino (1996: 9), there are six types of media used in learning and instruction.

a. Text The most commonly used medium is text. Text is alphanumeric characters that may be displayed in any format-book, poster, chalkboard, computer screen, and so on.

b. Audio Audio includes anything you can hear-a person’s voice, music, mechanical sounds (running car engine), noise, and so on. It may be live or recorded.

c. Visuals Visuals are regularly used to promote learning. They include diagrams on a poster, drawing on a chalkboard, photographs, graphics in a book, cartoons, and so on.

d. Motion media

Motion media are media that show motion, including videotape, animation, and so on.

e. Manipulatives One set of material often not considered media are real objects and models. Manipulatives are three dimensional and can be touched and handled by students.

f. People The sixth and the final category of media is people. These may be teachers, students, or subject matter experts. People are critical to learning. Students learn from teachers, other students, and other adults.

3. The Importance of Instructional Media in Language Teaching

Technology and instructional media can serve many roles in learning process. The instruction may be dependent on the presence of a teacher (i.e., instructor directed). Certainly, properly designed instructional media enhance and promote learning and support teacher–based instruction but their effectiveness depends on the instructor. According to Newby (1996: 17), instructional media for teachers and learners can be used to:

a. Present materials in a manner learners readily assimilate

b. Deliver materials independently of the teacher, thus allowing students some control over how much the material they will experience and when (e.g. students can rewind or fast-forward portions of a video-or audiotape to match their own learning needs.

c. Allow learners for experience materials through various senses (e.g. seeing projected slides, reading textual materials, and hearing a verbal description of the same content.

d. Provide learners with repeated and varied experiences with subject matter to help them construct their own understanding or meaning.

e. Gain and maintain learners’ attention on the subject matter

f. Motivate students toward a goal

g. Present information in a manner that individual learners otherwise could not experience