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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter discusses the theories that are used to answer the research problems. There are two main sections in the chapter; theoretical description and
theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
Theoretical description is concerned with discussion on two instructional material design models applied in the study and some significant theories on
which the study is based.
1. Instructional Design Models
In the study, Kemp and Yalden models are used for the basic guidelines in designing a set of speaking instructional materials based on multiple intelligences
theory.
a. Kemp Model
Kemp says that instructional design plan is designed to supply the answer of three questions, which are considered to be the essence of instructional technology
1997: 8. The three are as follows. 1 What must be learnt? Objectives
2 What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? Activities and resources
3 How will we know when the required learning has taken place? Evaluation
10 To answer those three questions, Kemp 1997 8-9 proposes program
development, which consists of eight interdependence parts in it. The eight parts of Kemp’s program development are as follows.
1 Goals, Topic, and General Purposes Goals are the bases of all educational programs, which can be derived from
three sources — society, students, and subject areas Kemp, 1997: 14. Topics, which become the scope of the source or program, are usually sequenced
according to a logical organization, from simple or concrete levels to complex and more abstract levels Kemp, 1997: 15. Planning for instruction often starts with
teacher – oriented statements of general purposes for topics. In shorts, general purposes are what students generally are expected to learn as a result of
instruction. 2 Leaner Characteristics
In order to assure a student’s success in his educational program, the teacher should recognize and respect the student as an individual learner. Kemp states that
to serve both group and individual means that teacher must obtain information about students’ capabilities, needs, and interests 1997: 18-19. These should
affect the emphases in instructional planning, including the selection topics and the level at which topics are introduced, the choice and sequencing of objectives,
the depth of treatment, and the variety of learning activities. 3 Learning Objectives
Teacher is concerned with learning as the outcome of instruction. Learning requires active effort by the student. Learning objectives tell the student the goals
11 he must attaint, the ideas and skills that will be included in the upcoming
instruction, and the types of behaviors that will be expected during the evaluation. Thus, all objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote
learning. 4 Subject Content
Subject content must closely relate to the objectives and the student’s need. Subject content comprises the selection and organization of the specific
knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements, and behavioral factors of any topic Kemp, 1997: 44.
5 Pre-Assessment Pre-assessment is carried out in order to plan learning activities for which
students is prepared and at the same time to ensure that the student does not waste his time on things he already knows.
There are two kinds of test in this step. Prerequisite testing that is done to determine whether student has the appropriate background preparation for the
topic and pre-testing, which is done to determine which of the objectives the students may already have achieved.
6 Teaching-Leaning Activities and Recourses Teacher must determine the most efficient and effective methods in carrying
out the teaching-learning activities and then select materials to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content associated with each objective.
7 Support Services Funds, facilities, equipments, and personnel must be considered to carry out
the instructional plan Kemp, 1997: 84. If certain support is not available, it can limit a planned program severely.
12 8 Evaluation
Evaluation is the pay-off step in the instructional design plan, for both the students and the teacher Kemp, 1997: 91. The teacher evaluates the students’
accomplishment to do revision and reevaluation of the design in order to make improvement.
Figure 2.1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Plan Kemp, 1977: 9
b. Yalden Model
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