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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework. Review of related studies is used to review
the studies that have been done previously and to show the difference between this research and those researches in the past. Review of related theories is about
theories that are relevant to this research. The last part is theoretical framework which summarizes the theories and reviews used in this study.
A. Review of Related Studies
Martin 2004 states that children are considered as gender detectives who are very curious to search for cues about gender, especially about who should or
should not engage in a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys are different. Cognitive perspectives on gender development
assume that children are being active to search for many ways to find the meaning of something and make sense of the social world that surrounds them.
They do all of those things by using the gender cues provided by society to help them interpret what they see and hear p.67. In 1997, Grolnick, Deci, Ryan
states that many studies show children of parents who are more autonomy PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
supportive, more likely to spontaneously explore and extend themselves rather
than children who have more controlling parents as cited in Ryan, 2000, p.59.
Miller 2002 explains that in natural settings, it is difficult to assess the role of cognition because patterns of behavior are also influenced by
children‟s prior experiences. Nevertheless, a few longitudinal analyses have shown that once
children know gender stereotypes, their personal preferences show the gender type more. In her study, it has been difficult to generate neutral stimuli because
children appear to seize on any element that may implicate a gender norm so that they may categorize it as male or female. Experimental research also suggests that
young children are quick to jump to conclusions about sex differences, even on the basis of only a single instance as cited in Martin, 2004, p. 69.
Killen 2015 states that current research on conscience examines how
young children develop mechanisms for inhibiting negative behavior and promoting positive behavior as a result of internalizing parental norms.
Conscience is conceptualizedas an inner guidance or self-regulatory system involving an integration of moral emotion and conduct with limited focus on
cognition. This emphasis is partly on the development of a mutually responsive orientation between the parents and child that sensitizes the child to learn proper
conduct, codes of caring for others, and committed compliance. This is exemplified by
Kochanska‟s research on conscience Kochanska Aksan, 2006
as well as Thompson‟s research on early childhood morality Thompson,
2014 .
B. Review of Related Theories
In order to do this study, there are many theories related to the topic of the study. These theories used as tools to analyze the novel later. The theories are:
1. Gender Schema Theory
Before gender schema theory appears, there is Piaget‟s theory about the
cognitive structures. Piaget believes that intelligence is a process which is not about something that a child has but something a child does 1968, in Vasta, 1998,
p. 33. Children‟s intelligence can be understood by seeing their actions or how
they operate something. Piaget states that schemes involve two elements. They are an object in the environment and the child‟s reaction to the object. A scheme is a
psychological structure that reflects the child‟s underlying knowledge and guides
his or her interactions with the world. The child‟s intelligence is defined by the nature and organization of these schemes or other cognitive structures during
later development. Bem 1981, in Aubry et al, 2003 explains that children develop an
extensive associative network of knowledge about the gender norms of their culture, called gender schemas. Gender schemas affect the way children process
new information relevant to gender. The theory also proposes that the phenomenon of sex typing derives from gender-based schematic processing which
is from a generalized readiness to process information on the basis of the sex- linked associations that constitute the gender schema.
Bem 1981, in Vasta, 1998 states that a schema is a cognitive representation of the general structure of something familiar. The gender-schema
model proposes that, children develop schemas for “boy” and “girl”. These
schemas result principally from two factors. One is the child‟s inborn tendency to organize and classi
fy information from the environment. The other is our culture‟s heavy emphasis on providing gender distinguishing cues such as clothing, names,
and occupations, which make these concepts easily identifiable. Bem‟s 1985, in
Harter, 2006 gender schema theory describes how the initial labeling of one‟s
gender leads the young child to look to the culture where they learn that gender distinctions are very important. It causes them to attend to the content of gender
roles for males and females p.516. While learning that boys are expected to be strong, brave, and assertive but girls are expected to be good, nice, and quiet, boys
and girls acquire gender schemas. They adopt the characteristics that the culture considers appropriate for their gender.
Bem also comes up with gender schema theory, which changed gender from being seen as individual traits, but instead shows how society tended to
measure gender in a bipolar way as either more masculine or feminine depending upon such things as clothes, body movements, hobbies, employment, etc. which
she termed „cultural fictions‟ as cited in Kilvington Wood, 2016, p. 24. This theory is about sex typing between boys and girls that happen in their childhood.
Hendrix Wei 2009 explains that : The early gender bias experiences that children encounter can shape their
attitudes and beliefs related to their development of interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships, access to education equality, participation in
the corporate work world, as well as stifling their physical and psychological well being as cited in Aina, 2011, p.11.
