ruled with different dynasties, powers, etc. List of national heroes starts from the 17th century. Sultan Agung 1591-1645 is first proto-Indonesian, his fight and resistance
toward up-coming Dutch and their colonization is now looked as fight of Indonesian glory historical character against powerful, foreign invader.
Foreign invader brought a lot of changes into the lives of people in Archipelago and one of the
imported
products is – painting. History of art and representative art in
Indonesia can not be traced in same way like in the West.
Father of Indonesian paintings
is Raden Mas Saleh. His most popular painting is depicting Javanese rebellion Pangeran
Diponegoro and his capturing 1857. Before him, one Dutch artist painted this scene and he called it
–
Submission of Diponegoro 1835
. From that moment until today Pangeran Diponegoro - remarkable historical figure and national hero per excellence frequently enter
Indonesian paintings. Indonesian art is really vivid and recognized in global arena. Indonesian artist dare to say also something about the national ideology which surrounds
them, and that includes questions about national heroes. State driven production of national heroes and artist reply to this movement will be main topic of this research. The research
will focus on depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th century painting until today.
B. Problem Formulation
1. What is the meaning behind the depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro from the 19th
century paintings until present day artworks? 2.
How were the concepts of national heroism and national ideology reflected in the depiction of Pangeran Diponegoro?
3. What are the trends in the depiction of national heroes in the present day
Indonesian art and where Pangeran Diponegoro is in the Indonesian art today? perpustakaan.uns.ac.id
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C. Objectives of the research
According to research questions, the objectives of this research will be: 1.
Understanding the development of the concept of nationalism in Indonesian art through painting of Raden Mas Saleh in the mid-19th century until today.
2. Assessing the value of
national hero
in art, as well as understanding the evolution of the concepts of national ideology, heroes, and heroism, and how they overlaps with art.
3. Re-affirming the importance of the
national hero
for the future art, as well as the development of national identity.
D. Significance of the Research
1. Theoretical Significance
a. This research will help in understanding the concept of national heroism and its
relationship with art. b.
The results of this research will enrich research in cultural studies
2. Practical Benefit
a. Hopefully this research will show that national heroes are integral part of Indonesian
contemporary culture and with that it opens possibilities for studies of national heroism and its connect to other fields
– literature, popular culture, anthropology, feminism, and others.
b. Pangeran Diponegoro is a perfect symbol of national hero through works of art. This is
rather new look on his place in history and nationalism of Indonesia. Research will therefore also open possibilities to study Pangeran Diponegoro as well as other
historical figures in different point of view. c.
Finally this research will aim to show that painting is not alienated art form from other art forms that have longer tradition in Indonesia. It is vivid and integral part of
Indonesian art, and like that it deserves better and greater research and preservation. perpustakaan.uns.ac.id
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7
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Main Concepts
1. Heroism
1.1. The word for Hero
To understand the concept of heroism in Indonesia one first needs to understand the meaning of the word itself. This section begins with an explanation of words for heroes in
English, Indonesian, and the Javanese language, as the concept of hero can be difficult to understand, and the usage of heroes varies greatly. This will be shown in the next chapters,
as a steady foundation for understanding the concepts of hero and heroism requires an understanding of similarities between the terms for
hero
in languages that are used for this research.
There are different sources, with more or less the same meaning of the word
hero
in the English language. From one source etymology of the word is from the late 14th century
. Th e аord is coined in the English language in 1387. The definition of the аord is “
man of superhuman strength or physical courage.
” Origin of the аord is from ancient Greek:
heros
ἥ ω ,
demi-god
a variant singular of which was
heroe
, but the word comes in English from Latin
heros, hero
. Originally
defender, protector
, from Proto Indo- European root word
ser-
which has a meaning
to watch over, protect
can be compared to Latin word
servare
-
to save, deliver, preserve, protect
. Second meaning
man who exhibits great bravery in any course of action
is from 1660s. In the other sense as of
chief male character in a play, story, etc
it was first recorded in the 1690s. Skeat, 2005 Oxford Dictionary of English 2010 defines the word in two aspects. Second one is
definition of hero sandwich alternative American name for submarine sandwich. So, here there will be mentioned only the meaning of the first entry: 1 hero, noun Plural heroes: a
person, typically a man, who is admired for their courage, outstanding achievements, or noble qualities, example is:
a war hero.
2 chief male character in a book, play, or film, who is typically identified with good qualities, and with whom the reader is expected to
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sympathize, example:
the hero of
Kipling‟s
story.
3 Hero in mythology and folklore is a
person of superhuman qualities and often semi-divine origin, in particular one whose exploits were the subject of ancient Greek myths.
Words derived from hero are: heroism, the drug heroin because of its euphoric feeling that the drug provides, but link between hero and heroine is blurry, anti-hero, and
here we will examine a more female version and hero-worshiping. Female version of
hero
is
heroine
. This form started to be used in the 1650s. It comes from Latin heroine,
heroina
plural
heroinae
-
a female hero, a
demigoddess” – for example Medea. It is originally
from Ancient Greek
heroine
, female version of
heros
. In context as
principal female character in drama or poem
the word exist from 1715. Lately, because of frequent miss- spelling and confusion with the word heroin, in usage is female hero or interesting blend
form from „she‟ and „hero‟ – shero – which is used more in urban dictionary vernacular.
Hero worshiping is first recorded around the year of 1774 and it is defined as: excessive admiration for someone. In ancient Greece there was a practise of the worshiping of
superhuman heroes. Oxford Dictionary of English, 2010 Indonesian word
Pahlawan
also has interesting connotations. The most important Indonesian dictionary
Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia
Great Indonesian Dictionary defines the word in its 2005 edition:
Pahlawan Sanskerta: phala-wan yang
berarti orang
yang dari
dirinya menghasilkan buah phala yang berkualitas bagi bangsa, negara, dan agama
adalah orang yang menonjol karena keberaniannya dan pengorbanannya dalam membela kebenaran, atau pejuang yang gagah beran.
[Which can be translated into English: Pahlawan Indonesian word for hero comes from Sanskrit phala-
аan аhich means person аho produces „fruit‟
phala
which has quality for his nation, country, and religion is person who stands out because of
his bravery and sacrifice for the right cause or who achieved glorious victory.] KBBI, 2008
1
For the main character in artwork in Indonesian language
tokoh utama
is used. Female version of
pahlawan
is
pahlawan wanita
and hero-worshiping would be
pahlawan terpuji
.
Kepahlawanan
is word for heroism and patriotism. Other words used for hero in
1
KBBI stands for Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia Pusat Bahasa, Great Dictionary of the Indonesian Language of the Language Center, 4
th
edition with 90,000 entries was accessed online from http:bahasa.kemdiknas.go.idkbbi retrieved in December 2013
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Indonesian language are:
wira, wirawan,
from Javanese mentioned below,
tokoh utama yang berani dan hormat
for character in art work who has attributes of bravery and respect – mentioned above also
pelaku utama, pemeran utama, bahadur
knight and
hero
itself. Words unrelated to heroism, derived from pahlawan are
pahlawan bakiak
– a term for a husband who is very afraid of his wife and
pahlawan kesiangan
– people who want to work hard after the hard times are over and often want credits for their work.
2
In Javanese language there are several words for expressing the concept of
hero. Wira
,
wirawan
and its slightly nobler form
wirya
is more an alus refined word for
manly, brave, and courageous
. It is frequently used as an element in compound names: there are Javanese Indonesian male names such are Wira or Wirapandya. The word
sura
has a similar meaning and is likewise more commonly found in the five-syllable names of males, not just in literature, but in general name giving as well. Example of given male
names with this root are Sura and Surapati.
Satria
does not mean
hero
exactly, but more
a warrior
or a member of the refined, aristocratic classes. These words derive mostly from Sanskrit which has greatly enriched the Javanese lexicon for well over a thousand years.
Pahlawan
of Persian origins is the most common word for hero in Indonesian and is also used in Javanese Mangusuwito, 2002.
1.2. Heroes and National Heroes in Indonesia
Indonesian language does not use the same expression for the main character in artwork thus in culture and to address great men in history and national heroes, thus
researches of heroism within this common point are scarce in Indonesia. Nevertheless, Lombard, D. and Pelras, C. 1993 in
Asian Mythologies
defines
cultural heroes
in Insular South-East Asia which corresponds to Indonesia and The Philippines in four distinctive
categories: 1 Heroes of Oral Myth, 2 Heroes of Written Accounts, 3 Heroes Linked to Successive Acculturation India, China, Islam and 4 Modern Heroes
3
Cultural heroes represent ideal figures that humans follow and respect. Examples given to in encyclopaedia are legends of creation of world in oral traditions. How the world
2
Ibid
3
Lombard, D. and Pelras C. 1993. Cultural Heroes of Insular Southeast Asia, Page 167-173 in Yves Bonnefoy edt. Asian Mythologies, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
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was created in different cultures around Archipelago. Legendary prince Panji and his adventures is an example of a hero of the written legends. Cultural heroes can be re-born
and re-shaped with acculturation, adapt to new circumstances. There are numerous examples; one is a traditional Javanese story of Wali Sanggo - they were nine saint men
who brought Islam to Java.
4
The last type of a cultural hero, which is mentioned in this book, is perhaps not as far removed from the preceding heroes as one may think: these are national heroes that the
independent states of insular Southeast Asia have chosen to symbolize the birth of the new society
Rizal and Aguinaldo for the Philippines, and Hasanuddin, Kartini, and Imam Bonjol for Indonesia. Although they are historical, each of these figures has myth-
simplified official biographies, widely disseminated, particularly through schools –
his commemorative ritual, his stereotyped iconography, etc. The frequency with which they are mentioned shows how much modern societies, from that point of
view, have trails in common with so-called primitive societies.
5
The cult of national heroes in Indonesia was introduced by its first president Sukarno. Principal initiative was to remake Indonesian memory around a revolutionary
theme. In a set of decrees between 1957 and 1963 he laid down the procedure for declaring as national heroes people who had resisted colonialism or served the cause of the
independence. Remuneration was arranged for the descendents of those, so the names creating a small industry of lobbyists and the manner of commemorating them through
monuments, anniversaries, school texts and street names was prescribed Reid, 2005. The second Indonesian president, Suharto, was not all that interested in celebrating
revolution, but he did take the theme of anti-Dutch struggle. The fact that many of those already declared heroes had died fighting the Dutch made it a small step to portray armed
struggle as the leitmotif of national history, and the national army as its natural contemporary upholder. By 1992, twenty-three military officers had been added to the
pantheon of national heroes, more than a third of the total declared under Suharto. Reid, 2005
4
Ibid
5
Ibid
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The National Hero of Indonesia Indonesian:
Gelar Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia
is the highest-level title awarded in Indonesia. It is posthumously given by the Government of Indonesia for actions which are deemed to be heroic
– defined as
actual deeds which can be remembered and exemplified for all time by other citizens
or
extraordinary service furthering the interests of the state and people
. The Ministry of Social Affairs
6
gives seven criteria which an individual must fulfil, as follows:
1. An Indonesian citizen
who is deceased and, during his or her lifetime, led an armed struggle or produced a concept or product useful to the state;
2. Have continued the struggle throughout his or her life and performed above and
beyond the call of duty; 3.
Have had a wide-reaching impact through his or her actions; 4.
Have shown a high degree of nationalism; 5.
Have been of good moral standing and respectable character; 6.
Never surrendered to his or her enemies; and 7.
Never made an act which taints his or her legacy. Nominations undergo a four-step process and must be approved at each level. A
proposal is made by the general populace in a city or regency to the mayor or regent, who must then make a request to the provinces governor. The governor then makes a
recommendation to the Ministry of Social Affairs, which forwards it to the President, represented by the Board of Titles
Dewan Gelar
; this board consists of two academics, two persons of a military background, and three persons who have previously received the
award or title. Those selected by the President, as represented by the Board, are awarded the title at a ceremony in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta. Since 2000, the ceremony has
been occurring in early November – coinciding with Indonesias Heroes Day
Hari Pahlawan
7
. The legal framework for the title, initially styled National Independence Hero
Pahlawan Kemerdekaan Nasional
, was established with the release of Presidential Decree
6
Data for this section were retrieved from official page of The Ministry of Social Affairs http:www.kemsos.go.idmodules.php?name=Pahlawan in December 2013
7
Ibid
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No. 241 of 1958. The title was first awarded on August 30
th
, 1959 to the politician turned writer Abdul Muis, who had died the previous month. This title was used for the rest
of Sukarno ‟s rule. When Suharto rose to power in the mid-1960s, the title was given its
current name. Special titles at the level of National Hero have also been awarded. Hero of the Revolution
Pahlawan Revolusi
was given in 1965 to ten victims of the failed 30 September Movement coup, while Sukarno and former vice-president Mohammad
Hatta were given the title Proclamation Heroes
Pahlawan Proklamasi
in 1988 for their role in reading the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence and in 2012 they also became
National Heroes.
8
A total of 147 men and 12 women have been deemed national heroes, most recently Rajiman Wediodiningrat, Lambertus Nicodemus Palar and Tahi Bonar Simatupang in
2013. Indonesia is perhaps the only country with ever- increasing number of „national
heroes‟ officiallв recogniгed bв the state Abdullah, 2009. These heroes haЯe come from all parts of the Indonesian archipelago, from Aceh in the west to Papua in the east. They
represent numerous ethnicities, including native Indonesians, ethnic Chinese, and Eurasians. They include prime ministers, guerrillas, government ministers, soldiers, royalty,
journalists, and a bishop. The procedure may have started from Sukarno, but only with the New Order has it got its relatively well-established procedure. Abdullah 2009 uses
picturesque comparison to explain this procedure: Since then [New Order] it becomes obvious that state recognition of national heroes
practicallв a аaв for state to compose „national familв album‟. The inclusion in the „portraits into the national album‟ is official national recognition of struggles and
sacrifices they have made to the nation and
tanah air
, the homeland. It is understandable that every province would look deep into its respective history to see
whether there was someone in the past who had sacrificed and given his or her life to the glory of the nation and
tanah air
. Abdullah, 2009:442
8
Ibid
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1.3. Pangeran Diponegoro
9
- The National Symbol Diponegoro has the same symbolic value as Vasil Levski
10
for Bulgarian nationhood and the idea of a national hero. He is Javanese. He was born in heartland of
Javanese high culture – Yogyakarta. He was a son of a newly established Javanese royalty
after tearing Surakarta keraton in two branches – one in Yogyakarta and one in Surakarta
who somehow continued the line of previous rulers. He did not become the heir of throne, rather he was devoted to his piece of land and peasants who were living and working for
him. He saw injustices and intrigues of the Dutch. He stood against it. He led a five years exhausting warrevolution. Java was changing dramatically in his time, becoming closer to
the West. He saw himself also as a religious leader. He was tricked, captured and he died in exile in South Celebes far from his native land.
His presence is still notable in Indonesia. UNESCO list of World Memory bear two documents from Indonesia and one
is „Babad Diponegoro‟ – first autobiography in Javanese literature. He was an inspiration for controversial Indonesian Communist Party,
but also to army after whom Central-Javanese Region was named. The same goes for some big ships that Indonesian Military Navy possesses. Central-Javanese capital Semarang is
the home to the biggest University in the city which was named after him. Main streets in almost every big city in Indonesia or at least in Java are named after him. Diponegoro is a
sign of Indonesia. He is one of the few figures that are so closely connected with the idea of Indonesia. Sometimes they can look like opposites Communist Party vs. Army, secular
ideas of higher education Яs. Diponegoro‟s strong religious feelings, JaЯa Яs. Sulaаesi but these opposites make Indonesia.
Diponegoro was born on 11 November 1785 in Yogyakarta, and was the eldest son of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III of Yogyakarta. When the sultan died in 1814, Diponegoro
renounced the
succession to
the throne
in favor
of his
younger half
9
Peter Carey is British historian who wrote extensively about Pangeran Diponegoro, and he is using English- Javanese coin for him - Prince Dipanegara. In this study Indonesian version of his name
– Pangeran Diponegoro will be used, and together will all given names it would not be put in Italic font style, unlike other
Indonesian words.
10
Vasil Levski is national hero of Bulgaria and topic of research of Maria Todorova 2009 which is mentioned in introduction and later on in literature review
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brother, Hamengkubuwono IV who was supported by the Dutch. Being a devout Muslim, Diponegoro was alarmed by the loosening of religious observance at his half brothers
court, as well as by the courts pro-Dutch policy Carey, 2007. In 1821, famine and plague spread around Java. His half brother Hamengkubuwono
IV r. 1814-1821 who had succeeded to the throne after their father had died. He left only an infant son as heir, Hamengkubuwono V. When the young ruler was appointed as a new
sultan, there was a dispute over his guardianship. Diponegoro was again renounced, though he believed he had been promised the right to succeed his half brother. This series of
natural disasters and political upheaval finally erupted into a full scale rebellion Carey, 2007.
Dutch colonial rule was becoming unpopular by the local farmers because of tax rises, crop failures and by Javanese nobles because the Dutch colonial authorities deprived
them of their right to lease land. Because the local farmers and many nobles were ready to support Diponegoro and because he believed that he had been chosen by divine powers to
lead a rebellion against the Christian colonials, he started a holy war against the Dutch. Dipenogoro was widely believed to be the
Ratu Adil
, the Just Ruler predicted in the Pralembang Joyoboyo Carey, 2007.
The beginning of the war saw large losses on the side of the Dutch, due to their lack of coherent strategy and commitment in fighting Diponegoros guerrilla warfare. Ambushes
were set up, and food supplies were denied to the Dutch troops. The Dutch finally committed themselves to controlling the spreading rebellion by increasing the number of
troops and sending General De Kock to stop the insurgencies. De Kock developed a strategy of fortified camps benteng and mobile forces. Heavily-fortified and well-
defended soldiers occupied key landmarks to limit the movement of Diponegoros troops while mobile forces tried to find and fight the rebels. From 1829, Diponegoro definitely
lost the initiative and he was put in a defensive position. Many troops and leaders were defeated or deserted Carey, 2007.
In 1830 Diponegoros military seemed near defeat and negotiations were started. Diponegoro demanded to have a free state under a sultan and he wanted to become the
Muslim leader caliph for the whole of Java. In March 1830 he was invited to negotiate perpustakaan.uns.ac.id
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under a flag of truce. He accepted but was taken prisoner on 28 March despite the flag of truce. De Kock claims that he had warned several Javanese nobles to tell Diponegoro he
had to lessen his previous demands or that he would be forced to take other measures. The Dutch exiled him to Makassar Carey, 2007.
2. Indonesian Painting
Representational art in Indonesia has a long tradition. There are numerous sites all over the archipelago that indicate the presence of visual arts from early ages
– there are caves that are painted as well as ceramics, jewellery, and other decorative objects that date
back to pre-history. Classical Indonesian art is one that is addressed to flourishing Javanese and Balinese kingdoms and art that was made under important rulers to show their power.
Beautiful temples are scattered all over Java and Bali. When Islam was introduced to the archipelago, it brought classical elements of Islamic art, including architecture in first place
one concerning building and decorating mosques. In the 19th century, with emerging colonialism, painting as a new form of art
emerges in the island of Java and Bali especially. Balinese art had different periods and schools and hereby we will focus more on the development of painting in Java because it
influenced development of art in the whole nation, but also due to the fact that it follows main ideological and national ideas that will shape Indonesia.
Mooi Indie
or
Hindia Jelita
Beautiful Indies was a period of Indonesian painting at the beginning of the 20th century. It shows ideological Indonesia with hard-working people working in beautiful rice fields,
scenes of every day easy and nice lives, landscapes with lavish mountains, beautiful, modest, but yet seductive Indonesian girls. Painters were both Indonesians and Westerners
who were living in Indonesia at that time. In 1938
Persagi Persatuan Ahli Gambar
Indonesia
was created as a response to the previous movement, where artists considered that their role was more engaging and they needed to show more real life of people, with
their struggles and sufferings. Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990 With the World War II and the Japanese occupation paintings served as propaganda
for achieving the national goal – a united and free Indonesia. There were numerous art
groups created between 1942 until 1950. In 1950 Indonesia was
de facto
independent from perpustakaan.uns.ac.id
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the Netherlands and those first years of Independence were marked by major turbulences. That dynamic was illustrated in groups of artists that were created, all with different
political or religious agendas. More important for Indonesian art was the creation and establishment of art
academies in Java and artist organizations connected with these centres. From their inception, three schools have dominated the Indonesian art scene: IKJ
Insitut Kesenian Jakarta
– Art Institute in Jakarta, ITB
Institut Teknologi Bandung
– Technology Institute in Bandung, and ISI
Institut Seni Indonesia
, created as ASRI
Akademi Seni Rupa Indonesia
– Fine Art Academy of Indonesia back in days, now Insitute of Indonesian Art Yogyakarta. In 1970s Indonesian art started also to have strong Post-Modernistic discourse
following world trends. Not long after Indonesian art entered in the world art arena and after 1990s Indonesian art has had its ups and downs but until today continues to surprise
and intrigue art lovers from all over globe. Kusuma-Atmadja et al. 1990 With this short review of art we can see that Indonesian art is connected with its
modern history. In classical times artists were merely craftsmen and somehow moderators between divine forces, rulers and the common people. Beginning in the 19th century
painters and Indonesian intellectuals start to shape the future of the Indonesian nation. Once, Indonesia was independent they continue to work together with politicians in shaping
the national ideology. For thirty years, Indonesia was under one regime that did not allow free artistic thinking, so the influence of art quitted down out at first, but then together with
the people‟s resistance, artists started to become braЯer and to question authorities. Since 1999, Indonesia has again been questioning its position in the wider world, and in this
process of re-positioning and re-shaping the identity artists do play an active role.
B. Theoretical Basis
