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.
APPENDIXS
A. Vietnam War
The Vietnam War is also known as the Second Indochina War, the Vietnam Conflict, and, in Vietnam, the American War, occurred from 1959 to April 30,
1975. The war was fought between the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam North Vietnam and its communist allies and the US-supported
Republic of Vietnam South Vietnam. It concluded with the defeat and dissolution of South Vietnam. For the United States, the war ended in the
withdrawal of American troops and the failure of its foreign policy in Vietnam
Over 1.4 million military personnel were killed in the war only 6 percent were members of the United States armed forces, while estimates of civilian fatalities
range up to 2 million. On April 30, 1975, the capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, fell to the communist forces of North Vietnam, effectively ending the Vietnam
War.
86
The Effect of War on U. S. Society, The war had profound effects on
American society as well as on the U. S. role abroad. Unpopularity of the war with large portions of the American public was a major reason for President
Johnson’s refusal to run for the Democratic nomination to a second term in 1968. The strong showing of Sen. Eugene McCarthy in Democratic primary balloting
was interpreted by the president as a repudiation of his leadership. Vice president Hubert H. Humphrey was not able to dissociate himself sufficiently from the
Johnson was policies, and the result was the election of republican Richard M. Nixon as president in 1968.
Other political effects , one of the war’s early political effects on the
domestic scene was its impact on the already developing radicalization and polarization of the country’s youth. Young persons were in the forefront of the
1968 presidential drives of Senators McCarthy and Robert F. Kennedy. The young led demonstrations at the Democratic convention in Chicago and
dominated antiwar demonstrations.
The intensity of youth’s reaction against the war was shown in the spring of 1970. Almost all collage campuses were disrupted, and some of the schools ere
forced to close, as students expressed their opposition to the U. S. South Vietnamese intervention in Cambodia. Student leaders accused President Nixon
of expanding the conflict, and the fatal shooting of four students by Ohio National Guardsmen during a demonstration at Kent State University in May intensified
the reaction against the government.
The opsonisation of youth to other war drew the greatest attention; party because of the dramatic ways in which it expressed itself. But many clergymen,
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.
educators, and businessmen had expressed their disapproval of the government’s Vietnam policies as early as the mid-1960’s, and the numbers grew in subsequent
years. As late as 1968, however, a majority of the public apparently did not favor disengagement from Vietnam. Initially, the public believed that the United State
should not have become involved in the conflict, but that since it was involved it should see the war through to the end. By mid-1971 a majority of the public
seemed to believe that the United States should get out of the war. A Harris poll in May had shown that 60 of the persons polled favored continued U. S.
withdrawal even if the government of South Vietnam should collapse
Escalation of a war that was never formally declared led to a strain on the constitutional system of checks and balances. Although congressional and
senatorial criticism of the war mounted after 1965, it was clear that public-distrust of government was increasing. This attitude seemed to be dramatically justified
when in 1971 several U. S. newspapers exposed high-level deception of the American public over Vietnam by publishing excerpts from the “Pentagon
Paper,” a classified government study. The subsequent illegal entry into the office of Dr. Daniel Ellsberg’s psychiatrist –Ellsberg was chiefly responsible for the
disclosure of the Pentagon Papers underscored continued government irregularities. The Vietnam War thus contributes to a strong national reaction to
the cover up of the June 1972 Watergate break-in, which led of let to the attempt to impeach President Nixon, his historic resignation in1974, and the succession of
Gerald R. Ford to the presidency. The irony was that President Nixon was largely responsible for American disengagement from the Vietnam War.
The congers elected in 1974 included an unusually large number of new faces. It was younger and more liberal than any Congers had been for years. The
radicalization of some aspects of American politics, a feature of the late 1960’s and early 1970’s, had given way to a more measured liberal presence. But
American political complacency had been shaken. A new responsiveness had been introduced into the political process, and the Vietnam War had played a
significant role in the change. There was also a domestic response to the overextension of American power abroad and to the excessive assumption of
responsibility for other nations’ affairs. Termed “neo-isolationist,” this sentiment was clearly a reaction to the length, cost, and outcome of the war.
Effects on U. S. Economy , the reaction against an activist foreign policy
was not exclusively induced by the Vietnam War. Increasingly, Americans showed growing concern over neglected areas of domestic policy-the
deteriorating state of many cities, environmental pollution, and expanding welfare rolls. But it was the general state of the economy as much as anything else that
caused increasing public concern in the first half of the 1970’s.
The economy cost of U. S. involvement in Vietnam was probably the least appreciated aspect of the decisions of those who first involved the United
States in the war and then dramatically escalated the conflict in the mid 1960’s. By the war’s end in 1975, its total cost to the United States, including higher
prices fir other government activities not directly related to the foreseen,
government controls of the sort that had been introduced in previous major wars were not immediately established.
The inflation that gripped the nation in the first half on the 1970’s, although not wholly induces by the Vietnam War, was much influenced by the
cost. As early as the mid 1960’s such areas as the construction industry were hard hit as war spending drove up mortgage interest rates. By the early1970’s, the
inflation was the worst the nation had experienced since the years just after World War II. Overall economic activity slowed down considerable after nearly a decade
of fairly rapid growth and subsequent compensatory moves, combined with the decline of U.S. participation in the war, increase unemployment.
By 1974 the country was clearly in a recession and the difficulties of the American economy were having worldwide effects. A largely uncontrolled war
economy appeared to have driven up the costs of many American non-war goods, to have forced capital and related activity out of the country and to have laid the
basis for overlapping inflation and recession.
The consequences of the Vietnam War for the United States were not limited to its domestic economy. The high priority accorded Vietnam had adverse
effects for the United States in internationally as well. While the United States was devoting billions of dollars a year to military investment developed at an
unprecedented pace. Japan began invading U.S. domestic markets and underrating U.S. sales abroad. Eventually as foreign confidence in the dollar sagged, the U.S.
currency was allowed to float on the international market. In effect, it was expending its missile and naval capacities, its economy unburdened by the
adverse effect of a costly foreign war.
87
B. Cold War in Berlin Berlin Wall The Berlin Wall German: Berliner Mauer was a barrier separating West
Berlin from East Berlin and the rest of East Germany. The longer inner German border demarcated the remainder of the East-West German border between the
two states. Both borders were part of the Iron Curtain.
The wall separated East Berlin and West Berlin for 28 years, from the day construction began on August 13, 1961 until it was dismantled in 1989. During
this period at least 133 people were confirmed killed trying to cross the Wall into West Berlin, according to official figures. However, a prominent victims group
claims that more than 200 people had been killed trying to flee from East to West Berlin. The GDREast German government gave shooting orders to border guards
dealing with defectors; such orders are not the same as shoot to kill orders which GDR officials have denied exist.
When the East German government announced on November 9, 1989, after several weeks of civil unrest, that visits in West Germany and West Berlin
would be permitted, crowds of East Germans climbed onto and crossed the wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the
next few weeks, parts of the wall were chipped away by a euphoric public and by
87
“Vietnam” The Encyclopedia Americana 1829, Volume 28, p. 112g.
souvenir hunters; industrial equipment was later used to remove almost all of the rest of it
After the end of World War II in Europe, what territorially remained of Nazi Germany was divided into four occupation zones per the Potsdam
Agreement, each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the Americans, British, French and Soviets. The old capital of Berlin, as the seat of
the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city lying deep inside the zone of the Soviet Union. Although the intent was for
the occupying powers to govern Germany together inside the 1947 borders, the advent of Cold War tension caused the French, British and American zones to be
formed into the Federal Republic of Germany and West Berlin in 1949, excluding the Soviet zone, which then formed the German Democratic Republic
including East Berlin.
88
The Effect of Cold War in Berlin, After the downfall of Hitlers Third
Reich, the division of East and West Germany separated the Land In the Middle of Europe. The continued shifts in boundaries only clarified Germanys uneasy
role in Europe. After an evil dictatorship by Hitler and the horrors brought about by Word War II, for nearly fifty years the division of Germany appeared to insure
stability into the Cold War.
A nation of former Nazis seemed to be being transformed into two nations, one of Democrats, the other of Communists-and each appeared to be a
model instance of its type. These two Germanys, created by the superpowers, faced each other on the Iron Curtain, which ran down the inner-most frontier of
the largest divided nation. East and West Germany were almost polar opposites. They saw everything in black and white. They were each others greatest enemies.
This was shown on April 26, 1960. The East German Ministry of Cultural Affairs issued as order that the word Germany would no longer be used in any
documents. The two German states would henceforth be called the German Democratic Republic and West Germany.
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