materials from radio, disk, provided listening passage, and other sources which are recorded. For ‘live’ listening, the teacher can do the reading aloud, story-
telling, interviews, and conversations.
b. Teaching Speaking
The theory of teaching speaking is contained as one of the chapters in Nunan’s Practical English Language Teaching 2003. The chapter of teaching
speaking is written by Kathleen M. Balley from Monterey Institute of International Studies USA. Balley stated that speaking is productive skill. It
consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning Nunan, 2003:48.
There are five principles in teaching speaking. Those are: 1 Be aware of the differences between second language and foreign language
learning context. As stated by Balley in Nunan 2003: 54, foreign language FL context is
one where the target language not the language of communication in the society, for example learning English in Japan. Second language SL context
is one where the target language is the language of communication in the society, for example English in the UK. The challenges for the teacher are
determined by the target language context. 2 Give students practice with both fluency and accuracy.
Fluency is the extent to which the speakers use the language quickly and confidently. Accuracy is the extent to which students’ speech matches what
people actually say when they use the target language Nunan, 2003:55. The teacher had to give big opportunities to the students to develop their fluency
and accuracy. It can be done by not correcting the students’ mistake too often. 3 Provide opportunities for students to talk by using group work or pair work,
and limiting teacher talk. Group work or pair work give more chances to the students to speak. This
activity can also limit the teachers’ talk. 4 Plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning
Negotiation for meaning is the process which involves checking to see if you have understood what someone said, clarifying your understanding, and
confirming that someone has understood what you mean Nunan, 2003:55. 5 Design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both
transactional and interactional speaking. Transactional speaking is the communication in social purpose. In
interactional speaking, the purpose is to make someone to do something. The classroom activities have to be created to let the students experience both the
transactional and interactional speaking using the target language. There are several classroom speaking activities which are explained by
Harmer 2004. The activities which are often used by the teacher are acting for script, communication games, discussion, prepared talk, simulation and role-play.
In acting for script, the students are asked to perform based on the script provided. Games are designed to encourage students to speak. The games can be solving a
puzzle, drawing a picture by describing, arranging to a good order, or finding the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
similarities and differences between pictures Harmer, 2004:272. The teacher can find another games which can provoke the students to speak and have interaction
one to another. Discussion is used to avoid the students’ difficulty in public speaking. Small group discussion can be a small simulation which allows students
to share their thoughts. Prepared talk, simulation and role-play have the similarity that all of them
have to be prepared before. In prepared talk, it can be like a speech. The students are given a theme or topic that they have to speak in front of the class. The teacher
gives time to the students to prepare it. Simulation and role-play are almost the same with prepared talk. The students need time to prepare it. The difference is in
simulation and role-play, the students have to work in a group. Simulation and role-play can be used to encourage general oral fluency or to train students for
specific situations Harmer, 2004:274. In teaching speaking, the teacher has three different roles to make the
students speak fluently Harmer, 2004:275-276. The first is as a prompter. The teacher does as a prompter without interrupting the students. The teacher can do
supportive action like offering discrete suggestion. The second is as a participant. The teacher can be the participant in discussion or role-play to encourage the
students, but the teacher should not talk too much. The third is as feedback provider. The feedback is given in the appropriate situation. The teacher has to
know the right situation to give the feedback, so the students can improve themselves in speaking without being judged.
c. Teaching Reading
