Theoretical Review LITERATURE REVIEW

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter consists of two major parts, namely theoretical review and theoretical framework. In the first part, the researcher would like to present and clarify the review of related theories which include the nature of vocabulary knowledge, vocabulary coverage, textbooks, word recycling and corpus. By the end of this chapter, the researcher presents the framework of the theories which gives theoretical answer for the research problems.

A. Theoretical Review

This section covers the discussion about the nature of vocabulary, vocabulary coverage, textbooks, word recycling and corpus. 1. The Nature of Vocabulary Knowledge This section will begin with the existing definitions of a word. Then it is continued to the discussion of knowing a word, word knowledge, breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge, and receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. a. Definitions of a Word It is important to know what a word is when we are discussing vocabulary. There are three definitions of a word according to Carter. The first definition is an arthographic definition Carter, 1998: 4. The definition is based on its system of spelling. A word is defined as any sequence of letters including a limited number of other characteristics such as hypen and apostrophe, bounded on other side by a space or punctuation mark. Carter gives further explanation that arthographic definition has some problems related to word inflections including the use of affixes and the same form of word which carries more than one meaning. This definition only focuses on the form of the word excluding the meaning which is an important aspect of word. The second definition of a word which is stated by Carter is the minimum unit of language. According to Carter 1998: 5, a word is the minimum meaningful unit of language. Although this definition is more precise, it assumes an overt relation between individual words and the concept of meaning. The problem in this definition is on particular meanings which are carried by more than one word. It is not easy to determine whether they should be regarded as one word or more than one word. The third definition according to Carter is related to its pronunciation. The definition is that a word will not have more than one stressed syllable Carter, 1998: 6. The problem in this definition is on the words, for example, prepositions and conjunctions are not usually stressed. The most well-known definition of a word is given by Poole 1999: 10 who defines a word as a minimum free form. It implies that a word is a smallest unit of language which has its own meaning or which can stand by itself. It is the most famous description. However, Aitchison 1999: 56 gives a definition related to spoken language. According to Aitchison, it is a quite unsatisfactory description because words cannot easily defined. There is still not any clear cut definition of a word. Describing the concept of a word is not simple, either in theoretical terms or for different applied linguistics Read, 2000: 17. Carter 1998: 5-6 states that defining a word is difficult. Carter lists some problems encountered in defining a word, namely; 1 orthographic, free-form or stressed based definition is meaningful, but there are many words which do not match the categories, 2 defining a word as unit of meaning produces various exception and seems unclear and asymmetrical, 3 different forms of words are not necessarily regarded as different words, 4 the same form of words can have distinct and discrete meanings, and 5 the existing idioms disturb the effort of defining words. Apart from these phenomena, it seems that one thing must get more attention in the context of vocabulary learning, therefore, identifying what is involved in knowing a word rather than knowing what a word means. b. Knowing a Word In order to get clearer insight of a word, it is necessary to know the aspects of word knowledge. Generally, the discussions of what is meant by knowing a word emphasize the knowledge of word forms, their meanings, and their linguistics features, and the ability to use words in different modalities and varied linguistic settings Paribakht Wesche, 1997: 310. Furthermore, word knowledge has also been described as consisting of some components. Richards 1976: 83 suggests some features of assumptions of word knowledge. He states that knowing a word entails: 1 knowing the degree of probability of encountering that word in speech or print and the sort of words most likely to be found associated with the word. This assumption suggests that word knowledge covers the knowledge of the frequency of the word and its collocation, 2 knowing the limitations imposed on the use of the word according to variations of function and situation, 3 knowing a word means knowing the syntactic behaviour associated with the word. This shows that knowledge of word comprises the understanding of relationships between specific grammatical features and the word, 4 knowing a word entails knowledge of the underlying form of a word and the derivations that can be made from it. This feature implies that knowledge of words involves the knowledge of word inflections and the use of affixes, 5 knowing a word entails knowledge of the network of associations between that word and other words in the language. This indicates that lexical knowledge includes the understanding of the association between the word and other words, 6 knowing a word means knowing the semantic value of a word, and 7 knowing a word means knowing many of the different meanings associated with a word. This covers the understanding of various meaning based on the context in which the word is used. The seven aspects provide clear points that must be considered in learning vocabulary. It is reasonable that vocabulary is related to all language learning and learners usually want to increase their store of vocabulary, regarding it as a measure of their language improvement Jordan, 1997: 149. The learners tend to view vocabulary mastery as meaningful development in their learning. It indicates that vocabulary knowledge is very important for them to evaluate their progress in learning second language. Thus, it is necessary for them to know what skills involved in knowing a word. Wallace 1982 as cited by Jordan 1997: 150 primary source describes word knowledge as the ability to: a recognize it in its spoken or written form, b recall it at will, c relate it to an appropriate object or concept, d use it in the appropriate grammatical form, e pronounce it in a recognizable way, f spell it correctly, g use it with the words it correctly goes with collocation, h use it at the appropriate level of formality and i be aware of its connotations and associations. The description also covers the knowledge of form, meaning and use of words. Paribakht and Wesche 1997: 180 describe five stages of vocabulary knowledge as reflected in their Vocabulary Knowledge Scale VKS. The VKS is originally used to elicit self-perceived and demonstrated knowledge of specific word in written text Paribakht Wesche, 1997: 179. The five stages in the VKS illustrate the steps of learners‟ vocabulary development. The first two stages rely on honest reporting by the learners of test takers Read, 2000: 132. Stage I of vocabulary development indicates that the word is totally unknown. At this stage the learners recognize neither the word nor the meaning. At Stage II of vocabulary development, however, the word is identified but the meaning is not recognized. This stage is a little higher than Stage I although the learners still do not know the meaning of the word. The next two stages, Stage III and Stage IV, indicate that the learners know both the word and its meaning. The difference between the two stages is on the degree of learners‟ conviction about the meaning of the word. Learners‟ confidence of the word meaning at Stage IV is higher than that of at Stage III, in that stage the learners confidently mention the meaning of the word. Stage V is different from the previous four stages. The difference can be seen in that previous four categories fall into receptive knowledge, while Stage V has moved to productive knowledge of vocabulary. At this stage the learners are able to use the word in a sentence. The five stages or categories are shown in Table 2.1 below: Table 2.1 VKS elicitation scale – self report categories Source: Paribakht and Wesche 1997: 180 c. Categories of Word Knowledge Nation 1990 points out the different categories of word knowledge. He identifies four categories of word knowledge as shown in Table 2.1. According to Nation, knowing a word means; 1 knowing its form, 2 knowing its position, 3 knowing its function, and 4 knowing its meaning. Firstly, knowledge of word includes the knowledge of word form. This category covers both the spoken and written form of the word. It comprises three aspects, namely, knowledge of the spoken form, knowledge of the written form and knowledge of word parts. Knowing the spoken form of the word includes being able to recognize the word when it is heard and being able to produce the spoken form in order to express a meaning Nation, 2001: 40. When the learners know the spoken form of a word, Self-report categories I I don‟t remember having seen this word before. II I have seen this word before, but I don‟t know what it means. III I have seen this word before, and I think it means -------------------- synonym or translation IV I know this word. It means --------------------. synonym or translation V I can use this word in a sentence: --------------------------. Write a sentence If you do this section, please also do Section IV it means that they are able not only to catch the spoken word but also to pronounce the word, including the particularly-stressed syllables in the word. Knowing the written form of the word is mainly related to the spelling of the word. One aspect of gaining familiarity with the written form of words is spelling Nation, 2001: 44. It means that knowledge of word spelling is the centre of knowing the written form of the word. Furthermore, Nation argues that the ability to spell is most strongly influenced by the way learners represent the phonological structure of the language. It implies that the knowledge of sound system of the language underlies learners‟ capability to represent the spoken form of words into the written form. He also insists that the spoken form of words can be represented in learners‟ memory in different ways: as whole words, as onsets the initial letter or letters and rhymes the final part of syllable, as letter names, and as phonemes. The last aspect of knowing word form is the knowledge of word parts. It is closely related to morphology, the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Knowledge of a language implies knowledge of its morphology Fromkin, David Blair Peter Collins, 2000: 66. It involves the understanding of affixes and stems in making up the words. This may help the learners learn both the meaning and the form of the words because of the fact that; the affixes often have their own meaning. For example, the prefixes il-, im-, ir-, dis-, and un- carry negative meaning of the word. The specific meaning they carry may facilitate language learners to store the meaning in mind. And, some other affixes change the parts of speech. The prefixes em- en-, for instance, and the suffixes –en, -ize, -ate, and –ify change an adjective into a verb. In addition, there are also some affixes forming noun, such as; -ion, -ment, -ness, -dom, -ity, -er-or, -ant, -ance and –ence, some others forming adjectives and also adverbs. This process is covered in morphology or the study of word formation Gass Selinker, 2001: 9. In brief, identifying various affixes forming different parts of speech may help learners remember the words. Secondly, knowledge of word involves knowing its position. This category comprises the understanding of grammatical patterns and collocations. Knowing grammatical patterns of a word is related to the use of the word in a sentence. Hence, it has close relationship with grammatical behavior of the word. For instance, in what sentence patterns the word may occur and can be used whether as subject, verb, object, adverb, complement, or other functions the word may have. Thus, the knowledge of parts of speech of a word and its grammatical patterns is needed. Grammatical learning burden of a word depends on the parallel in grammatical behavior between words of related meaning Nation, 2001: 56. This implies that the grammatical similarity of the words having related meanings will reduce the learning burden of the words. Therefore, knowing a word involves knowing its grammatical behavior. Furthermore, knowing a word also implies knowing the words which commonly collocates with. Knowing its collocations means knowing what words it typically occurs with. This feature includes the knowledge of the words or types of words most likely appear before or after the word, and the words or types of words must be used with the word. Besides, the knowledge of collocation is important in vocabulary knowledge because it covers the stored sequences of words which serve as the bases of learning, knowledge and use Nation, 2001: 321. This indicates the apparent position of collocation in vocabulary knowledge. Thirdly, knowing a word includes the knowledge of its functions. This category comprises the knowledge of its frequency and appropriateness. Knowing its frequency means recognizing whether the word frequently or rarely occurs. For example, the word student is more frequently used than the word pupil or disciple . And, knowing its appropriateness signifies the understanding whether the word is suitable for the context or in which it occurs or not. For instance, the word reserve or book is more appropriate than the word order when it is used in the context of hotel room reservation. It is clear that this lexical knowledge category is strongly related to the context in which a word is used. Constraints or limitations of word use derive from the way of translating L2 into L1 or from the context in which the word is used Nation, 2001: 57. This comprises the usage labels shown in dictionaries and the distinctive frequency of a word. Moreover, it is said to be different across cultures. It is understandable, therefore, that it is most likely influenced by the context in which the word is used. Undoubtedly, different countries may provide different contexts of using the word because of their different cultural settings. It can be said that certain words or terms commonly used in a country, especially the terms referring to certain cultures, may not be frequently used in different countries. The term bull-fighting , for example, will be familiar and frequently used in Spain but it will not in other countries which do not have the similar culture. This happens because bull-fighting is one of the cultural backgrounds in Spain. The use of the term is limited to particular cultural settings. In brief, knowledge of word use entails the understanding of usage of the word. Table 2.2 Knowing a word Source: Nation 1990: 31 Form Spoken form Written form Position Grammatical patterns Collocations Function Frequency Appropriateness Meaning Concept Associations R What does the word sound like? P How is the word pronounced? R What does the word look like? P How is the word written and spelled? R In what patterns does the word occur? P In what pattern must we use the word? R What words or types of words can be expected before or after the word? P What words or types of words must we use with this word? R How common is the word? P How often the word should be used? R Where would we expect to meet this word? P Where can this word be used? R What does the word mean? P What word should be used to express this meaning? R What other words does this word make us think of? P What other words could we use instead of this one? The last, knowing a word involves knowing its meaning. Learners usually think that knowing a word means knowing the spoken or written form of the word and its meaning Nation, 2001: 47. It sounds reasonable because learners normally deal with the form and meaning when they learn new words. But there is still one aspect that may help learners reduce the learning burden of words. They need also to be able to connect the two aspects; knowing the form and meaning. Since they establish the learners‟ readiness in retrieving the meaning when seeing or hearing the word form or getting back the word form when wishing to express the meaning Nation, 2001: 48. It seems that knowing the meaning of the word cannot be separated from the knowledge of its form. Therefore, the relationship between meaning and form constitutes a significant concept of knowing a word. Knowing a language means knowing how to relate sounds and meaning Fromkin, Blair Collins, 2004: 4. It can be concluded, then, that form-meaning connection finally may lead the learners to be able to understand and produce the word. As a matter of fact, many words which have a lot of different meanings exist in a dictionary. Some of the meanings are related to each other, but some others are not. In order to learn such words, there must be a clear guidance to determine whether the word having different meanings must be considered as the same or as distinct words. In this case, Nation‟s idea can be used to overcome the problem. He states that the words having the same form, including identical written forms and spoken forms, but carrying different meanings should be regarded as different words Nation, 2001: 49. Treating such words as different words helps the learners differentiate their meanings particularly when they are in use. The appropriate meaning of the word can be identified by looking at the context in which it occurs. It is called contextual variation in meaning or contextual variability Nagy, 1997: 65. Hence, knowing a word also involves knowing the different meanings carried by a word. According to Nagy, there are two kinds of contextual variation in meaning: 1 sense selection. It is a process in which a word is regarded as having two or more senses, and they must be selected contextually. In this case, language users hold a permanent internal representation of each related meaning, and when the word form is found they have to choose the suitable sense from those stored in their brain Nation, 2001: 50, and 2 reference specification. In this variation the interpretation of a word in particular context is more specific than the meaning stored in human memory. In this case, language users have a fundamental concept of a word which is suitable with a set of meanings of the word in use, and language learners have to determine what real items the word refers to Nation, 2001: 50. It is in line with what Carter 1998: 15 says that lexical words have a referent and it is almost impossible to communicate in a language without reference. Seeing the importance of reference in communication, it is necessary to identify what is meant by referent. A referent is the object, entity, state of affairs, etc. in the external world to which a lexical item refers Carter, 1998: 15. For this reason, it is acceptable that knowing the meaning of a word also entails the knowledge of concept – what the word means, and referents – what the word refers to. However, the researcher also has her own definition aimed in this research. In this research, a word is defined as the smallest unit of language, it has own meaning and it can stand by itself. Dealing with students who learn vocabulary, Bogaards 2000 argues that L2 learners may be assumed to learn not only word but also lexical units. In this case, he identifies six aspects of lexical knowledge, namely; form, meaning, morphology, syntax, collocation, and discourse. The first five elements are the similar aspects mentioned by other experts. The sixth aspect – discourse, however, is a deeper knowledge of vocabulary. It deals with knowledge of styles, register, and appropriateness of particular senses of a same word which is not easy for L2 learners to acquire Bogaards, 2000: 493. In other words, the last aspect – discourse- is strongly related to the context of language use. It means that there is certain role played by vocabulary in a discourse. In this case, Nation 2001: 205 identifies two aspects related to vocabulary use in a text, namely: vocabulary use signals and contributes to the uniqueness of the text. What makes the text different from other texts, and vocabulary use carries general discourse messages shared with other similar texts. This shows the importance of vocabulary use in carrying the communicative purposes of a text. Knowledge of vocabulary can be viewed from different perspectives. Among the various views, the notion of „breadth and depth of knowledge‟ and „receptive and productive knowledge‟ is a comprehensive discussion of vocabulary knowledge. In order to get clearer description of vocabulary knowledge, the following subsections present the discussion of various ideas given by different experts. d. Breadth and Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge The term „breadth of vocabulary knowledge‟ usually refers to vocabulary size of the learners. Vocabulary size refers to the number of words that a person knows Read, 2000: 31. Learners‟ vocabulary size is most likely related to their ability in understanding both written and spoken texts. This implies that the greater vocabulary size the learners have, the more easily they understand the texts they read or listen. This also means that vocabulary knowledge mainly deals with the range of different words and proper understanding of the words. Nonetheless, it should not be supposed that if a learner has adequate vocabulary then all aspects in language learning become easy and it should not also be thought that significant vocabulary knowledge is always a prerequisite to language skill performance Nation Waring, 1997 in Schmitt McCarthy, 1997: 6. To this extent, knowledge of words is operationalized as the ability to translate L2 vocabulary into L1, to define the word correctly, or to say the word differently and therefore, vocabulary knowledge is defined as precise comprehension Henriksen, 1999: 305. This stage of vocabulary knowledge falls into the „partial-precise knowledge‟ of vocabulary. Various studies on vocabulary size, lexical growth, and the number of words gained overtime have been conducted by different researchers. The focus of such studies is mainly on measuring the number of vocabulary, such as; counting the number of words recognized by native speakers D‟Anna, Zechmeister Hall, 1991; Goulden, Nation Read, 1999, the amount of words required by native speakers Hazenberg Hulsjin, 1996; Laufer, 1992, the number of words gained from incidental exposure while reading Huckin, Haynes Coady, 1993; Nagy, Herman Anderson, 1985, and the amount of words learned by applying different exercises, techniques and strategies Avila Sadoski, 1996; Cohen Aphek, 1980. Such research, however, does not lead to sufficient understanding of vocabulary acquisition and does not explain how individual words are acquired Schmitt, 1998: 282. This condition underlies the emerge depth of knowledge perspective which likely clarifies the issue. The result of a study conducted by Goulden, Nation, and Read 1990 show that educated English native speakers know around 2,000 word families. The native speakers add 1,000 word families to their vocabulary per year. However, it is possible for learners of English as a second language non-native speakers. According to Schmitt 2000, the first 2,000 most frequent types of English is referred as the level for the basic initial goal of second language learners. However, only the first 1,000 most frequent types needs to be recognized by elementary level students and 2,000 most frequent types needs to be recognized by intermediate level students Sánchez Criado, 2009. Depth of knowledge, on the other hand, emphasizes more on the quality of the learners‟ vocabulary knowledge covering the full understanding or rich meaning representation of a word Henriksen, 1999: 305. The full understanding or rich meaning of a word can be gained by looking at its relations or associations with other words and its contexts. A depth knowledge continuum includes knowledge of the word‟s syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations with other words Laufer Paribakht, 1998: 367. The focus of studies on depth of knowledge is different from that of breadth knowledge. It focuses on individual words rather than on the overall growth of vocabulary Schmitt, 1998: 282. It means that the aspect of depth of knowledge stresses more on the learners‟ knowledge of individual words including its referential meanings and its relations to other words. In other words, it most likely deals with the range of meanings carried by individual words. It also describes how well the learners understand the appropriate meaning of a word when it is used in different contexts. Understanding the context in which a word occurs in particularly needed by advanced learners. It is important for advance learners to acquire more senses of polysemous words and learn more about possible collocates, special uses, and so on Bogaards, 2000: 495. This indicates that they most likely deal with depth of knowledge vocabulary. By taking into account the context in which a word occurs, the proper meaning can eventually be found and understood. For that reason, context constitutes an aspect that is apparently inseparable from depth of knowledge of vocabulary. The proponents of depth of vocabulary knowledge Paribakht Wesche, 1993, 1997; Read, 1993; Schmitt, 1998; Viberg, 1993; Wesche Paribakht, 1996 state that most of the existing vocabulary tests or the traditional vocabulary tests only measure partial knowledge, particularly recognition. Therefore, they develop tests to measure wider and deeper aspects of lexical knowledge. Using such tests, they assess the aspects such as; basic understanding, full understanding, correct use, sensitivity to collocation and word association. Nevertheless, different test models should be accommodated in order to cover various features of knowledge being tested. Henriksen 1999: 306 argues the researchers must use the combination of tests formats tapping distinct aspects of knowledge to describe the learner‟s lexical competence related to the aspects of quality or depth of vocabulary knowledge. In their research, Laufer and Paribakht 1998 classify word knowledge into three types, namely, passive, controlled active and free active knowledge. Passive vocabulary knowledge is defined as understanding its most frequent meaning. Controlled active knowledge is described as a cue recall of the word. And free active knowledge is referred to spontaneous use of a word in context. The three aspects show that what they investigate is fairly deeper than merely word recognition which is the concern of breadth of vocabulary knowledge. In his research which tracks the acquisition of 11 words over a year course for three adult learners having advance English proficiency, Schmitt 1998 measures four elements of lexical knowledge: spelling, associations, grammatical information, and meaning. The study aims at explaining the acquisition of individual words. According to Schmitt, an acquisition study focusing on individual words or depth of vocabulary knowledge needs to include some aspects; firstly, the study must map the vocabulary development within individual person. Secondly, it should be longitudinal in nature. Thirdly, measurement procedures which are appropriate to measure the degree of lexical knowledge are needed. And, complete lexical mastery needs more than knowledge of word form and meaning. Furthermore, he argues that the ability to measure the degree of depth of knowledge for each word is needed in investigating the incremental acquisition of individual words. Involving the four aspects in the study will likely lead to a better explanation of words are acquired. e. Receptive and Productive of Vocabulary Knowledge Knowledge of a language makes it possible to understand and produce new sentences Fromkin, Blair Collins, 2000: 7. This implies the notion of receptive and productive use of language. Hence, the knowledge of vocabulary is essentially needed to support the language use. This signifies the emergence of the term receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary. This term is widely used although in terms of lexicon it is almost impossible to find a clear and adequate definition of what is meant by reception and production Melka, 1997: 84. What is clear about receptive-productive continuum is that it mainly deals with how well the learner can access and use a word Laufer Paribakht, 1998: 367. Melka argues that knowing a word is closely related to the concept of word familiarity or degrees of knowledge. The concept labels productive knowledge as higher degrees of knowledge. It includes the knowing of various meanings of a polysemous word and the knowing of collocations or idioms. The knowledge of phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis and appropriateness is regarded as very high degrees of familiarity and therefore the production process needs a more complete set of information Melka, 1997: 86-87. Nevertheless, Melka does not describe to what extent the degrees of familiarity is called receptive knowledge. There are various stages of recognition and the boundary of word recognition is at the stage when the word is stored incompletely or when word production is still impossible Melka, 1997: 88. This shows that there is still not any clear definition of what is meant by reception and production. Nevertheless, vocabulary knowledge can be best represented as a continuum with the initial stage being recognition and the final being production Gass Selinker, 2001: 375. It means that reception or recognition cannot be separated from production but it must be viewed as an interrelated process. The dichotomy between reception and production looks convenient for vocabulary teaching especially for some practical and pedagogical purposes but the two notions should be avoided and even abandoned because of their fuzziness Melka, 1997: 99. This is overtly contradictory to the fact that empirically the term is commonly used to refer to the passive and active use of language. As a matter of fact, vocabulary, as the centre of the language, always plays its role in both passive and active use of language. Besides, most models of lexical knowledge distinguish between passivereceptive and activeproductive vocabulary Laufer Paribakht, 1998: 368. The passive use of language is mostly related to two skills, namely, listening and reading. This can be seen in that the aim of listening activity is to understand the spoken language and that of reading is to comprehend the written text. The process of understanding occurs in mind. The language users most likely use their knowledge of vocabulary to comprehend the meaning of the spokenwritten texts. Researchers agree that word comprehension does not automatically determine the accuracy of word use and that passivereceptive knowledge generally precedes activeproductive knowledge Laufer Paribakht, 1998: 369. At passivereceptive level, therefore, the language users mostly do not produce any spokenwritten language. That is why it is called the passive use of language. On the other hand, active use of language is inseparable from the other two language skills – speaking and writing. In speaking, the speaker actively conveys messages to the listeners. In this case, spoken language is produced. In addition, writing activity aims at communicating the researcher ‟s ideas to the reader. Therefore, written language is produced as a mean of conveying the ideas. It seems clearer now that in listeningreading the listenerreader uses the language passively, whereas in speaking and writing the language is used actively. The receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary is discussed comprehensively by Nation 1990: 31-33. He argues that the receptive dimension of vocabulary knowledge entails 1 being able to recognize it when it is heard or when it is seen, 2 having an expectation of what grammatical pattern the word will occur in, 3 having some expectation of the words which will collocate with it, 4 knowing its frequency and appropriateness, 5 being able to recall its meaning, 6 being able to make different associations with other related words. Likewise, productive knowledge also covers some aspects of vocabulary knowledge which expand the receptive knowledge. Productive knowledge of vocabulary involves; a knowing how to pronounce the word, b how to write and spell it, c how to use it in correct grammatical patterns along with the words usually collocate with, d how to avoid using low frequency word too often and use it in suitable situations, e how to use the word to stand for the meaning it represents, and f how to be able to think of suitable replacement of the word if there are any. Those aspects including the scope of receptive and productive knowledge are classified into five categories of knowing a word; knowing its form, knowing its position, knowing its function, and knowing its meaning see Table 2.1. 2. Vocabulary Coverage Since this research is trying to find the vocabulary coverage in textbook. It takes the important role to explain more about types, tokens and word families. a. Types and Tokens According to Nation and Meara 2002, a token or running word is main term if we are going to count how long a textbook is. Nation and Meara 2002 also define token as all of the words that occur in the textbook. For example, the word school should be counted every time it occurs. It is different with types. If we are going to count types, we do not need to count all of the words. The same words are only counted once even it occurs more than one. Nation 1983: 10 puts the example of tokens and types in the sentence: The red house belongs to the girl with red shirt. This sentence contains ten tokens and eight types. b. Word Family The term of word family is a main point in deciding the vocabulary load of texts Bauer Nation, 1993. Discussing word family, we also have to know about lemmas. Nation and Meara 2002 define a lemma as a set of related words which have the stem form and inflected forms. They also come from the same part of speech. For example, write, wrote, written are in the same lemma. Since they have the same stem and they are verb. Furthermore, affixes and suffixes whose the same stems are also included in word family. Words under the same word family do not have to be in the same part of speech. Nation and Meara 2002 clarify that in some cases, there are some groups of words that are usually used together, such as have a nice day and nice to meet you . Those words are called multi word units MWU. When we meet those kinds of words, they are used and analyzed in units. The criterion of MWU is that there is no word which can be replaced by other words. In this research, however, the researcher will ignore MWU and consider MWU as separate words. Since in this research, MWU is counted as separate words. 3. Textbooks In this section, the researcher would like to talk about the definition of textbooks, which covers some definitions of textbooks from different experts. After that the researcher would like to talk about textbooks in school based curriculum. Next, the researcher will talk about curriculum of Junior High School, English textbook for Junior High School, advantages and disadvantages of textbooks, and the last is about the criteria of good textbooks. a. Definition of Textbooks In education, textbooks have taken very important role in education. It is because textbooks and education cannot be separated. According to Brewster et al.; 2001, Brown, 2001; Byrd, 2001; and Graves, 2000, textbooks still contribute a lot to the educational system. Textbooks are ubiquitous of every educational system. Brewster et al 2001 state that textbooks are learning aids. Graves 2000: 174 is in line with Brewster et al . Graves mentions that textbooks are teaching tools. As aids or tools, textbooks help teachers and learners do the process of study. National Educational Department of Indonesia 2005: 5 states that a textbook is a learning media which has important role in the classroom. As a teaching media, textbooks present the curriculum material in an instructional system. Richards 2001: 251 says that textbooks serve as the basis for much of the language input learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom. They provide goals, process and the most obvious and common material of an instruction and educational planning. Byrd 2001: 415 says that the most obvious and the most common form of material support for language instruction comes through textbooks. It is unlikely that textbooks shape much of what happens in the classroom. Textbook is like a motorcycle. A motorcycle cannot operate by itself without a rider. As well as a textbook, a textbook needs a teacher who can use it maximally to give maximum benefits. A teacher, as a rider, needs to know what kinds of conditions he has to go. Thus, he needs to know the administrators‟ needs especially on curriculum which leads to the process to a certain goal. Masuhara 1998: 247-249 explains that good textbooks meet teachers, learners and administrators‟ needs and wants. From all above definitions of textbooks, the researcher tends to say that a textbook is not only a learning aid or a teaching tool. However, a textbook is the basic thing of an educational system which provides goals, process and the most obvious and common material of an instruction. With various activities and tasks, textbooks will help teachers and students achieve the goals of the instruction. The researcher has told about the definition textbooks from some experts. All of them mix the understanding of textbook and course book. However, Tomlinson 1998 differentiates textbook and course book. He says that a course book is a textbook which provides core material for course. It aims to provide as much as possible in one book and it is designed so that it could serve as the only book which the learners necessarily use during a course, such as a book usually includes work on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, function and the skill of listening, speaking, reading and writing. He categorizes course books as part of textbooks. The researcher tends to consider that both textbook and course book are the same. b. Textbooks in School Based Curriculum Altbach and Kelly 1988 write that textbooks constitute the base of school knowledge in the third world countries where there is a chronic shortage of qualified teachers. They say that in many instances in the third world countries, teachers adhere closely to texts, using them as the sole source of school knowledge, assigning students lessons contained in the textbook and testing students lessons contained in the textbook and testing the students only on the knowledge contained in the book. Therefore, textbooks do not only play important roles in the level of instructional system. They also play important roles in the higher system, or supra system or in the educational level system Richards, 2001: 251. Furthermore, Farrell and Heyneman 1988: 19 say that textbooks are needed as national inspirations for political, social, and economic developments. Because of these important roles, a lot of governments especially from the developing countries try to take control of the textbook content, production and distribution. Byrd 2005: 415 writes that in Egypt unified series of textbooks is created for use throughout the country. In Indonesia, the government keeps controlling the textbooks. Throughout The Ministry of National Education Decree No. 26 year 2005, Indonesia declared textbooks which are appropriate and can be used in the process of teaching leaning in Indonesia. Farrell and Heyneman 1988 say that economic influences pedagogical choice, including textbook choice. They made a study on the correlations between annual cost student in classroom material and school qualities. They found out those who spend less money get lower quality of education. Therefore, every country spends a lot of money on it to improve the quality of education. Indonesia has various financial sources for textbooks such as BOS School Operational Grant, State Budget APBN and Local Government Budget APBD budgets. With these different kinds of budgets for textbooks purchasing, the government of Indonesia tries to give enough textbooks for each student. The National Department of Education also provides electronic books, called BSE Buku Sekolah Elektronik. Teachers can access for free through internet. They can download the ready printed material and make copies for the students. The government hopes that they can provide cheaper textbooks for Indonesian students. c. Curriculum of Junior High School Based on PERMENDIKNAS No. 23 year 2006, junior high school students in each grade; VII, VIII, IX will spend four hours in a week, which each our consist of forty-five minutes to study formally in their school. The researcher will use Table 2.3 to show the group of lessons. Table 2.3 The Group of Lessons for Junior High School Students Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 2006 CLASS AND TIME ALLOCATION VII VIII IX A. LESSONS Pendidikan Agama 2 2 2 Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan 2 2 2 Bahasa Indonesia 4 4 4 Bahasa Inggris 4 4 4 Matematika 4 4 4 Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam 4 4 4 Ilmu Pengetahuan Sosial 4 4 4 Seni Budaya 2 2 2 Pendidikan Jasmani, Olah Raga, dan Kesehatan 2 2 2 Teknik Informatika 2 2 2 B. LOCAL CONTENT MUATAN LOKAL Muatan Lokal 2 2 2 C. SELF DEVELOPMENT 2 2 2 TOTAL 32 32 32 Considering Table 2.3 shown in previous section, it can be seen that English language learning becomes a compulsory lesson that every student must learn in their school. More specifically, they will spend two hours in a week to learn English in their school. Since they are in the intermediate level of learning English, 2,000 types of English needs to be recognized by students Sánchez Criado, 2009. d. Advantages and Disadvantages of Textbooks Textbook are important and contribute a lot in the process of operating educational system. On the other hand, Crawford 2002, Richards 2001, and Halliwell 2006 point out some disadvantages of textbooks. The following are the advantages and disadvantages of textbooks. 1 Advantages Textbooks provide material, review and visual record of progress for students Riddell, 2003. Textbooks can also give secure feelings because learners can predict what they are going to study and they have a certain pattern which will guide them what to do next Halliwell, 2006. Ellis 1994 explains that books with good design and layout motivate learners to study. English textbooks provide various activities which will support individual different learning. Besides, learners can always reread the materials that have been discussed before. Textbooks provide a clearly thought program which is appropriately sequenced and structured to include progressive revisions for teachers. They also provide wide range of materials and activities that teachers can select based on their learners‟ need Halliwell, 2006. Crawford 2002: 81 states that textbooks make teaching learning process becomes more accountable. Everybody can see whether the activities and exercises help the learners to achieve the goal. For teachers who are very busy teaching, books provide source of practical teaching ideas. Teachers can grasp the book and find activities without need to think further that it will harm their students. Textbooks mean providing cheap materials for stakeholders. They do not need to spend money on designing material program, publishing or copying them. Some schools even get some extra financial support by having cooperation with a publisher. 2 Disadvantages Crawford 2002 and Richards 2001 point out some weaknesses of using textbooks. Firstly, textbooks deskill teachers and rob them of their capacity to think professionally and respond to their students. Secondly, it is possible that textbooks provide different cultures from the users. This situation might give backwash to the students. Crawford and Richards also remark that some books fail to present appropriate and realistic language model. The result, learners will miss to achieve the local goal. Richards mentions some more weaknesses and he says that textbooks may contain inauthentic language, they may not reflect students‟ needs and they are usually expensive. e. Criteria of Good Textbooks It is better to make some evaluations before selecting a textbook. Masuhara and Byrd explain the criteria of a good textbook. In this research, the researcher will combine Masuhara‟s 1998: 240-241 and Byrd‟s 2001: 416 criteria. Masuhara says that a good book is a book which meets teacher, student and administrators‟ needs and wants. Masuhara stresses on the relationship between a book and people who use it, she puts the importance of meeting the curriculum as the criteria under the administrators‟ needs. 1 Textbooks Meet the Learners‟ Needs Masuhara says that learners‟ personal needs appear because of different ages, sexes, cultural backgrounds, interests, and educational backgrounds. Learners‟ learning needs are characterized by their learning styles, previous language learning experiences, gap between the target level in terms of knowledge, gap between the target level and the present level of proficiency in various competence areas and learning goals and expectations for a course. Their future professional needs are characterized by requirements for the future undertakings in terms of the knowledge of language, the knowledge of language use and the second language competence. Byrd 2001 says that learners consider the content, examples, exercises and format as important considerations. They question whether the content is really interesting and useful for them or not. The examples should be appropriate to their lives and interests. They also need various activities which are well graded and readable. 2 Textbooks Meet Teachers‟ Needs Teachers‟ needs can be classified into two, namely personal needs and professional needs. Teachers‟ personal needs are characterized by their age, cultural background, interest, educational bac kground and teachers‟ language proficiency. Teachers‟ professional needs are characterized by their preferred teaching styles, their teacher training experience and their teaching experience. Byrd says that teachers seek three things from textbooks namely contentexplanations, examples and exercises or tasks. When a textbook provides content that a teacher will find useful to carry out the goals of the program then it is good. Teachers need usable examples and various activities in teaching. 3 Textbooks Meet Administrators‟ Needs Administrators‟ needs refer to institutional needs which will cover sociopolitical needs, market forces, educational policy and constraints such as time budget and resources. Byrd 2001: 416 gives an example of an educational policy by pointing out that in Egypt the Ministry of Education arrange the publication of its own textbooks. Ministry of Education in Indonesia conducts textbook evaluations. Textbooks which pass the evaluation are recommended to be used in the classrooms. One example of the constraint was provided by Albatch 1988 who indicates that a lot of schools in the developing countries do not have enough money to buy books. They always wait from government‟s support. One of important policies is curriculum. Byrd says that generally the first area included in textbook analysis is whether the materials are compatible with the curriculum. For formal education, researchers and publishers use the published curriculum as the basis of their textbooks. Since a curriculum is also characterized by theories of language, theories of language learning and cultural-educational backgrounds, textbooks are also characterized by those three. Therefore, textbooks are considered good when they are in line with the theory of language, theory of language learning adopted in the curriculum and also in line with the cultural educational background. For instance, when a curriculum adopts the theory language as a means of communication a good textbook, it will provide activities which give chance to learners to build their knowledge and skill to communicate. 4. Word Recycling Nation 2002: 6 identifies four criteria of word frequency and range, namely, high frequency words, academic words, technical words, and low frequency words. a. High Frequency Words The words in this stage are about 2,000 word families and include most of the 176 function words and content words. In this stage, the words can account for 80 to 95 of the running words in a text. However, it depends on what kind of text is being counted. We are possible to speak and write what we need in this stage. According to Nation 2006, teaching and learning vocabulary with high frequency can be divided into four strands, namely meaning focused input, meaning focus output, language focused learning, and fluency development. a Meaning-focused Input Nation and Meara 2002 suggest that meaning focused input is included in incidental vocabulary learning through reading and listening. In order for this strategy to occur, non-native speakers should meet three conditions. First, only a small amount of unknown vocabulary is allowed in a text, around two per cent, or one unknown word in 50 Hu Nation, 2000. Second, the non-native speakers should receive large amount of input, at least one million tokens or more per year. Third, there should be more deliberate attention to the unknown word to increase the learning. In terms of the familiarity of a text, Nation 2006 suggests that teachers can make use of specially written or simplified material with appropriate language level, containing around 95 familiar words. Those texts can be used in reading and listening activities. In class, teachers‟ instruction and interaction with learners are also a good source of listening input. If teachers use high vocabulary words, then learners have enough opportunities for vocabulary learning. If an extensive reading program is well-managed, well-designed, it can also provide opportunities to learn and develop vocabulary knowledge. A good extensive reading program, based on what Nation and Wang 1999 state, a provides interesting materials in which learners know 98 of the running words, b inspires learners to read at least one book every two weeks, c encourages learners to read at least three books at the same level before reading those at higher level, d encourages learners to learn the unknown words in the texts deliberately, and e facilitates learners to talk and write about what they read with enough amount of time, not much. b Meaning-focused Output Learning from meaning-focused output refers to learning through speaking and writing, from receptive skill to productive skill. According to Nation and Meara 2002, the use of vocabulary in productive skill can be increased by designing activities which encourage learners to use new vocabulary, providing opportunities for learners, such as speaking activities in groups, to negotiate the meanings of unknown words, and encouraging learners to use partly known words in speaking and writing to increase their knowledge of the words. Negotiation of meaning is a powerful aspect in learning vocabulary through speaking Nation, 2006. However, the proportion of negotiation of words learned through spoken communication activities is still small. Nation adds that to design speaking tasks which facilitate vocabulary learning, some considerations should be put into account. Those are: i the target vocabulary should be included in the written input, ii the vocabulary should be used when performing the tasks, iii it is necessary to provide various opportunities in the task for learners to use the vocabulary, iv learners are required to use the vocabulary in different way from the one in the written input. Learning from meaning-focused output can also happen in writing activities. Nation, 2006 proposes that useful writing activities require written or spoken output as a source of information to write about. For example, the Internet is a good media for learning vocabulary since it provides learners opportunities to communicate and discuss through writing which includes negotiation of vocabulary. Besides, synthesizing information from some texts can also be a useful written input as a source of vocabulary learning. c Language-focused Learning Nation, 2006 explains that vocabulary learning though language focused learning occurs in many opportunities, such as giving deliberate attention through activities like intensive reading, making use of word cards, pre-teaching of vocabulary, and deliberate learning. The most obvious place for direct vocabulary learning is in intensive reading activities. Intensive reading requires teachers and learners to work together in a text, looking at the language features and content. From vocabulary perspective, teaching unknown words can be solved by pre-teaching them, giving the meanings directly, giving training in using strategies of guessing from context, analyzing word parts, and using dictionary. The selection of which one to use depends on whether it is high frequency or low frequency word, whether it is important in the text, the nature of the word, and the context in the text. d Fluency Development For sure, for fluency development, unknown words are not included. Learners do not learn new vocabulary, but learn how to make the best use of vocabulary that they already know or learn before. According to Nation and Meara 2002, developing vocabulary fluency needs several conditions. It requires familiar materials in a large number, focuses on the message, and enough pressure to learn at higher level. Vocabulary fluency development does not focus specifically on vocabulary or grammar anymore. Above that, it aims to develop fluency in listening, speaking, reading, or writing. Nation and Meara add that there are two approaches in developing vocabulary fluency. The first approach is repetition. It involves repeated practice on the same material so that learners can perform it fluently. The activities can be repeated reading, 432 technique learners speak for four minutes, three minutes, and two minutes about the same topic, but to different learners, the best recording learners make repeated attempts to record their best-spoken text, and rehearsed talks. The second approach is making many connections and associations with a known word. It invloves using a known word in various contexts and situations. The activities can be speed-reading practice, extensive reading, continuous writing, and retelling activities. It aims at developing vocabulary system with good order. Fluency is gained by controlling the language system and using the known word in various contexts and situations well and efficiently. According to Nation 2006, the characteristics of fluency development are: i involving no unknown vocabulary, grammatical features, or discourse features; ii existence of pressure or encouragement to perform at faster speed; iii message-focused aiming at message production or comprehension; iv involving language use in a large number. In level of words or phrases, like numbers, time sequences, greetings, etc, the activities can be teacher saying words or phrases quickly while learners pointing to what is being said, or done productively by doing vice versa. e. What Vocabulary Should be Learned There are two considerations before determining what vocabulary should focus on in vocabulary learning. They are the needs of learners and the usefulness of the vocabulary Nation and Meara, 2002. How useful is useful? Nation and Meara add to measure the usefulness of vocabulary items, it is necessary to count the frequency and range, which is “the occurrence of a word across several subsections of a corpus” Nation Waring, 1997: 13, in a relevant corpus. By counting the frequency of vocabulary items in a relevant corpus, it enables teachers to find a list of words which is useful for learners in early stages of language learning. The high frequency words deserve more teaching time and need to be the main learners‟ vocabulary goal since they are frequent and widespread. According to Read 2004 there are several things learners should be able to do with high frequency words. Learners need to have more than just a superficial understanding of the meaning; they should develop a rich and specific meaning representation as well as knowledge of the w ord’s formal features, syntactic functioning, collocational possibilities, register characteristics, and so on. p. 155 On the other hand, Nation and Waring continue, the low frequency words are not so frequent and thus do not deserve teaching time. However, these words should still be learned independently by learners after they have learned the high frequency words. Teachers should train them strategies how to learn those words. Besides the frequency counts, the decision also depends on learners‟ need. It is necessary for teachers to look at learners‟ need and make a special purposes vocabulary list. b. Academic Words Academic words are words that are used in academic from most of all disciples. In this academic word, the words are not in the most frequent 2000 words of English. The academic word covers around 8.5 to 10 running words in academic text. Commonly, people who are in this stage already know the most frequent 2000 words. c. Technical Words Each discipline has its own term or technical words. Some of technical words consist of high frequency and academic words. Although they are common, they are narrowed in special area. Such as the word cost and price , they have different usage in economics field. The technical word covers less than 1000 words. d. Low Frequency Words Low frequency words in each person are different. Some of the low frequency words are technical words for some people. Still according to Nation, the low frequency words include words such as phrase and condemn which might have been in the 2000 most frequent words of the language. Word recycling or word frequency deals with how many times a word occurs in a textbook. Nation 1983 states that most frequent word is counted based on a text with at least one million words. Nation and Waring 1997: 17 explain the purpose of word frequency in textbook. Its purpose is frequency provides rational basis for learners‟ vocabulary learning. It occurs many times in order to ensure the word will be studied and remembered often. So that, it is better for teachers to know the frequent words in a textbook before they use it. Furthermore, it is also important for teachers to know the vocabulary in order to meet the goal of the study. As stated by Coady and Nation 1988, learning words from context has great effect for learners. It is because it gives key word to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words. The purpose is to learn more words by presenting some words frequently. Thomas, Pfister and Peterson 2004 classify some levels of frequent words. According to them, high frequency usually includes functionalstructural words like in , to , of , and for . In the high frequency, the words do not contain conceptual validity for an individual word or for the text where the words occur. In medium frequency, the words are frequently repeated but they are lesser generality. Furthermore, content words are commonly found in medium frequency. The last is low frequency. It contains higher informational value rather than higher frequency. Nation proposes four strategies in dealing with low frequency words, namely guessing words from context, deliberate learning using word cards, using word part analysis to help memory, and dictionary use. a Guessing Words from Context According to Nation and Meara 2002, the most useful strategies of all is guessing from context. However, in order to be successful in guessing, learners should know 95-98 of the tokens in a text. In other words, the unknown word to guess should be surrounded by supporting context which learners can co mprehend. The success of this strategy also depends on learners‟ listening and reading skill. Besides, based on guessing procedures proposed by Clarke and Nation 1980, guessing strategy will be successful if learners are able to follow the idea presented in the text and they have background knowledge of the text Coady Nation, 1988. In second language learning area, guessing meaning form context is included in meaning-focused input strand. After successfully guessing the meaning of a word, direct learning of the same word should be followed to support the learning. b Deliberate Learning Using Word Cards Using word cards in vocabulary learning is included in deliberate one. Deliberate vocabulary learning is more effective than incidental vocabulary learning since it is more focused and goal oriented Nation Meara, 2002. In order to be successful in this strategy, Nation 2001 suggests a set of learning guidelines through the use of word cards, which are: i retrieval rather than recognition; ii the use of appropriately sized groups of cards; iii repetition spacing; iv word aloud repetition; v word processing; vi interference avoidance; vii serial learning effect avoidance; and viii the use of context when needed. c Helping Memory Using Word Parts This strategy helps learners memorize unfamiliar words by analyzing its parts. According to Coady and Nation 1988: 107, an unknown word can be analyzed by checking its “prefixes and stem, as a clue to its meaning”, for example, the word apposition, which comes from the words ap- a form of ad- , pos , and -ition . The meaning of apposition can be obtained by relating “the meaning of the parts to the meaning of the whole word” Nation Meara, 2002: 45. This strategy requires practice and learning. However, according to Nation and Meara 2002: 45, “word part analysis is not a reliable means of guessing, but it is a very useful way of checking on the accuracy of a guess based on context clues”. d Dictionary Use Nation and Meara propose that there are some types of vocabulary; monolingual, bilingual, or bilingualized. They can be used receptively to support listening and reading or productively to support speaking and writing. There are some subskills in using dictionaries, as suggested by Nation and Meara. Dictionary use involves numerous subskills such as reading a phonemic transcription, interpreting grammatical information, generalizing from example sentences and guessing from context to help choose from alternative meanings. p.46 5. Corpus Yule 2010 explains corpus as a large collection of texts, spoken or written, typically stored as a database in a computer. Corpora are useful for linguist of all persuasion since they are useful resources for pursuing various researches. For example, Meyer 2004 did research in lexicography. He shows that lexicographers can effectively make dictionaries by studying word usage in very large linguistic corpora. It means that corpora help to provide the examples of usage of a word or phrase from many millions words of a text. Furthermore, McEnery and Wilson 2001: 107 say corpora that they can help to know how frequently the textbook co-occurs and how many words provided in the textbook. They also state that corpus being a source of „natural‟ data; it is useful in defining evidently which forms are most frequently used in what aspect. Corpora provides rich textual information of a lexical item. With the use of corpus, it is easy to understand variability of word usage based on textual information. To summarize, Biber, Conrad and Reppen 2002 point out four basic characteristics of corpus based approach in the study of language aspects. First, corpus based analysis is empirical. The study analyses the actual patterns of use in natural texts. The focus here is on studying the use of language characteristics by considering appropriate association patterns. Second, it utilizes a large and principled collection of natural texts known as „corpus‟ as the basis for analysis. Third, it makes extensive use of computer for analysis, using both automatic and interactive techniques. Lastly, corpus based approach depends on both qualitative and quantitative analytical techniques. Quantitative involves the counts of linguistics features whereas qualitative is concerned with functional interpretation of the identified quantitative patterns. The qualitative explanation helps to explore the importance of such findings for learning about patterns of language use. Thus, the definition of corpus in this research is a collection text in written form and stored in electronic form. Then, it provides frequency data which later can be analyzed.

B. Theoretical Framework