CLASSICAL ETHICAL THEORIES LEARNING OUTCOMES

TOPIC 4 CLASSICAL ETHICAL THEORIES LEARNING OUTCOMES

 Explain the classical ethical theories  Understand Utilitarianism, virtue ethics and Deontology

STUDY : Chapter 6 in

Rousseau & Van Vuuren (2010: 67 -82)

4.1 UTILITARIANISM

The utilitarian movement was borne from the restrictive guilds and other trade practices of the late 18th and early 19-century English, and concerned itself not only with social gains, but also with the freedom of the individual to participate freely in the trade of choice. John Stuart Mill, a leading utilitarian, complete one of the finest treatises ever written on this subject: On Liberty (1859). The utilitarian idea is that the greatest good for mankind is happiness, and from this they derived what is called ‘The Greatest Happiness Principle’. This is a consequentialist theory, which means that it asks us to judge our actions according to their effect and consequences, and in particular, to seek for solutions where the greatest amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain would result from the action. This approach is not altogether inconsistent with the way in which most of us are brought up, namely to judge our actions by their consequences. In the economic sphere then, the utilitarian approach would support any economic arrangement whereby the result is the greater happiness of society. The problem with utilitarianism is that the measurement of utility is almost impossible, and that it requires a very rough approximation of what society might value. One interpretation might assume that people generally prefer more goods than less, and that therefore, any economic arrangement whereby more goods would meet the challenge. But, given that there is some diminishing return on utility, it becomes futile. To explain, ask yourself whether R1 in the hands of a hungry street child has exactly the same value or utility than it might have in the hands of a busy executive who earns R25 000 per month. Even if we found a way of accurately measuring utility, and lived in a society where preferences never changed, the utilitarian approach could still not escape what has been arguably its fiercest criticism, namely that it does not take the rights of the individuals seriously (Rawls, 1999). Take the case in point affirmative action. Let ’s assume that the 47 The utilitarian movement was borne from the restrictive guilds and other trade practices of the late 18th and early 19-century English, and concerned itself not only with social gains, but also with the freedom of the individual to participate freely in the trade of choice. John Stuart Mill, a leading utilitarian, complete one of the finest treatises ever written on this subject: On Liberty (1859). The utilitarian idea is that the greatest good for mankind is happiness, and from this they derived what is called ‘The Greatest Happiness Principle’. This is a consequentialist theory, which means that it asks us to judge our actions according to their effect and consequences, and in particular, to seek for solutions where the greatest amount of pleasure and the least amount of pain would result from the action. This approach is not altogether inconsistent with the way in which most of us are brought up, namely to judge our actions by their consequences. In the economic sphere then, the utilitarian approach would support any economic arrangement whereby the result is the greater happiness of society. The problem with utilitarianism is that the measurement of utility is almost impossible, and that it requires a very rough approximation of what society might value. One interpretation might assume that people generally prefer more goods than less, and that therefore, any economic arrangement whereby more goods would meet the challenge. But, given that there is some diminishing return on utility, it becomes futile. To explain, ask yourself whether R1 in the hands of a hungry street child has exactly the same value or utility than it might have in the hands of a busy executive who earns R25 000 per month. Even if we found a way of accurately measuring utility, and lived in a society where preferences never changed, the utilitarian approach could still not escape what has been arguably its fiercest criticism, namely that it does not take the rights of the individuals seriously (Rawls, 1999). Take the case in point affirmative action. Let ’s assume that the 47

ESSAY QUESTION

You are new Senior Manager at the Bakersfield plant owned by MM Brands, a major multi-national manufacturer of clothing. Bakersfield is a small city of 40,000 people. The factory employs 400 people most of whom earn low wages because of the low-skill work. At your initial meeting with the plant workers you promise that you will do everything possible to protect jobs at the plant, since everyone knows that there is pressure to outsource low-skill production work. Eight months later, you are told by upper management that the plant must be closed because MM Brands cannot stay in business unless it outsources production work. Competitors have been able to cut their prices by using outsourcing and are gaining against MM Brands. You will be offered a new job at the main MM Brands offices, but everyone else will lose their jobs. Due to your family responsibilities, you decide to accept the new job and you close the plant without fighting for the additional severance pay packages that the workers want. At the new factory in China, workers have 12-hour days and no health care benefits, but most are better off than they were as subsistence farmers. One year after the plant closing one-third of the previous employees report that they were challenged to improve themselves for the first time in lives and have found better, higher paying work. Another third are employed in similar low-skill, low-pay jobs, and the last third remain unemployed.

Evaluate whether or not your own actions and the actions of MM Brands were morally justified according to the theoretical provisions of the following moral perspectives: utilitarian, Kantian, Nietzschean, and Pragmatic. State the main theoretical provisions of each system, how these apply to the specific actions, and the reasoning used to decide whether or not these actions were morally correct according to each system. Next, using the theory of moral pluralism (the theory that each of the main moral systems may be partially true), reach a considered, rational, conclusion about the overall moral correctness of these actions. Finally, suggest ways that the actions might have been altered to ensure a better moral outcome. Based on reasoning derived from a pluralistic approach, suggest several moral rules that should guide the practice of outsourcing in general.

You may find it helpful to research the moral theories in conjunction with the key words "business ethics."

Comments on the question: Obviously, I have stacked the deck toward some very specific kinds of approaches that I would like to see in the answers. I want students to be "forced" to view problems from several perspectives, using the information in the textbook, as well as external sources. For a helpful article on Nietzsche, see http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n3_v40/ai_20141971/?tag=mantle_skin;content Comments on the question: Obviously, I have stacked the deck toward some very specific kinds of approaches that I would like to see in the answers. I want students to be "forced" to view problems from several perspectives, using the information in the textbook, as well as external sources. For a helpful article on Nietzsche, see http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n3_v40/ai_20141971/?tag=mantle_skin;content

Define the concept utilitarianism. Provide examples. Read your textbook page 75-76 to find the answer.

4.1.1 Justice as fairness

John Rawls was a fierce critic of the utilitarian position, because it affects the rights and liberties of the individuals. He developed a theory of justice called

‘Justice as Fairness’ and derived his proposed principles of economic and social justice through an interesting construct called the ‘Original Position’. This is what he argued: assuming that citizens had to decide on the rules applicable to their societal arrangements, he suggested that they enter through a ‘Veil of Ignoranc e’ to go back to the ‘Original Position’. In this hypothetical state, they have no knowledge of their future place in society, or of their talents and endowment, and now have to agree on a set of rules that could work for each of them, independently of eventually finding you to be a king or a pauper. Rawls concluded that through such an exercise, two principles would emerge: the first principle everyone would agree to would be the openness of opportunity. Everyone should have the chance to participate in the same fashion. The second principle he proposes is that everyone would agree that people should be allowed to pursue any opportunities for their own benefit, as long as the result

of their actions still leaves the worst-off in society in a better position. This second principle he called the ‘Difference Principle’. The principles of justice proposed by Rawls would allow for the private pursuit of profit by all individuals in society, as is generally understood under capitalism. It is his second principle that is more problematic, because we are generally not attuned towards assessing our economic opportunities on the basis on their impact on the worst-off in society. It is also an open question whether simply being better off than before, while becoming progressively worse-off in comparison to the more affluent members of society would offer a tenable and sustainable social arrangement for people at the bottom of the economic ladder.

What are your opinions on Rawls 2 principles? Why do you agree or disagree with the principles?

4.1.2 Command systems

The essence of the free-market system discussed above was entrepreneurial opportunity to identify a particular demand and then to make the decision to supply that demand at a particular price. Where supply and demand come into equilibrium, price and quantity is determined. In a centrally commanded economy, such as the old-style soviet communist state, the decision about what to produce, the quality and quantity of each, the capital required for such production, and the price and distribution of such goods rested solely with the central government. Technically speaking, the government held all of society ’s assets in trust for its people communally and hence the moniker ‘communism’ by which the system has become known. Given that during the Cold War, the world split geo-politically between the West and the East behind the so-called

‘Iron Curtain’, the battle between systems. In the West, to this very day, there is still a huge resistance to some of the ideas of socialism and communism, not so

much for their intrinsic nature, but more so for the threat to a certain way of life in the West that they have represented since the Russian Revolution in October 1917, through to the collapse of the Soviet Empire under Mikhail Gorbachev in 1991.

4.1.3 Communism

Ideologically, there is a certain appeal to communism, in that this system tries to ensure that everyone in society operates on even playing field. Unlike with the capitalist system, the state is the sole owner of capital goods and therefore the seemingly unfair advantage that ‘haves’ hold over ‘have-nots’ in society is removed. The medical doctor performs her talents for much the same price as does the mechanic. Personal enrichment is discouraged and the motivation to work is often derived from a higher cause such as duty to the state and to one ’s fellow citizens. When visiting countries, such as Cuba and Mozambique, both in transition to free-market system, one still detects traces of personal duty towards fellow citizens and the state – elements all too often lacking in the free- market democracy with its emphasis on personal gain. When production in society takes on the austere functionality of a centrally commanded system, there is little room for competition and differentiation. No need is seen to produce the more than 1000 kinds of motoring models that we can choose from in South African market. The most functional and cost efficient products are produce and that is what is available in the market to powerful and meek alike. There were no advertising agencies in the old soviet states- they did not have any role to play in shaping the desires that lie at the heart of the ever outward-shifting demand curve of free-market societies.

4.1.4 The socialist state

How do we measure the success of a society or nation state? Some would argue that the only measure is the production of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Where by all accounts, the USA, with $14, 58 trillion in 2008 (CIA World Factbook), is the undisputed richest country in the world. Another approach is to estimate the per capita GDP in each nation, where some of the world ‘s largest economies such as the USA ($45 800), THE United Kingdom ($35 500), and Japan ($33 500), significantly lag behind small offshore tax havens, such as Bermuda ($91 477) or Jersey ($57 000), oil-rich states such as Qatar ($87 600) and Kuwait ($55 900), and the small European nation of Luxembourg ($97 000). Even a perceived poor country, such as Ireland, which has been the source of cheap immigrant labour to both the USA and UK for the past few centuries, excels at ($9 700), and then some of the poorest countries in the world situated on the African continent: Malawi ($800), Sierra Leone ($600), and Liberia ($500). (CIA Work Factbook, 2007). A far more nuanced approach looks at a combination of quality of life elements. Foremost in this effort is the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) which states on their website: The Human Development Index, which the UNDP developed, considers aspects such as life expectancy, infant mortality, educational enrollment, literacy, and income to determine the relative quality of life of citizens in each country. Using these analytical tools, the mighty rich USA now only ranks 15th (UNDP UNHDI 2008 Ranking), with Iceland, Norway, Canada, Australia and Ireland at the top. Other Scandinavian states such as Sweden, Finland and Denmark, who have become the symbols of the socialist state, all outrank the USA and the UK (21st). South Africa ranks a lowly 125th on this list. The major ideological underpinning of the modern socialist state (which we should add, has become significantly more market-friendly than with what the founding fathers of socialism would have been comfortable) is to provide a basic safety network of essential social benefits for its citizens to improve their quality of life. Sometimes, the state will even operate in the market as participant, when it owns major enterprises such as a national airline, arms manufacture, electricity, telecommunications, rail or other industries where the prohibitive capital cost might render private ownership of such essential infrastructure prohibitive. The emphasis on more equality and life quality in the socialist state means that it includes in its safety net elements as free healthcare, education, and some retirement income. Furthermore, where the socialist state relies on the free market for its productive capabilities, one may find that there is a highly graduated tax regime in place, with top earners contributing a significant share of their income to the state to pay for all of society ’s needs. In some Scandinavian countries, income disparity is discouraged, and guidelines exist in terms of how big a difference may exist between the lowest labour rate and the highest executive pay. In South Africa, this ratio is not regulated, and the How do we measure the success of a society or nation state? Some would argue that the only measure is the production of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Where by all accounts, the USA, with $14, 58 trillion in 2008 (CIA World Factbook), is the undisputed richest country in the world. Another approach is to estimate the per capita GDP in each nation, where some of the world ‘s largest economies such as the USA ($45 800), THE United Kingdom ($35 500), and Japan ($33 500), significantly lag behind small offshore tax havens, such as Bermuda ($91 477) or Jersey ($57 000), oil-rich states such as Qatar ($87 600) and Kuwait ($55 900), and the small European nation of Luxembourg ($97 000). Even a perceived poor country, such as Ireland, which has been the source of cheap immigrant labour to both the USA and UK for the past few centuries, excels at ($9 700), and then some of the poorest countries in the world situated on the African continent: Malawi ($800), Sierra Leone ($600), and Liberia ($500). (CIA Work Factbook, 2007). A far more nuanced approach looks at a combination of quality of life elements. Foremost in this effort is the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) which states on their website: The Human Development Index, which the UNDP developed, considers aspects such as life expectancy, infant mortality, educational enrollment, literacy, and income to determine the relative quality of life of citizens in each country. Using these analytical tools, the mighty rich USA now only ranks 15th (UNDP UNHDI 2008 Ranking), with Iceland, Norway, Canada, Australia and Ireland at the top. Other Scandinavian states such as Sweden, Finland and Denmark, who have become the symbols of the socialist state, all outrank the USA and the UK (21st). South Africa ranks a lowly 125th on this list. The major ideological underpinning of the modern socialist state (which we should add, has become significantly more market-friendly than with what the founding fathers of socialism would have been comfortable) is to provide a basic safety network of essential social benefits for its citizens to improve their quality of life. Sometimes, the state will even operate in the market as participant, when it owns major enterprises such as a national airline, arms manufacture, electricity, telecommunications, rail or other industries where the prohibitive capital cost might render private ownership of such essential infrastructure prohibitive. The emphasis on more equality and life quality in the socialist state means that it includes in its safety net elements as free healthcare, education, and some retirement income. Furthermore, where the socialist state relies on the free market for its productive capabilities, one may find that there is a highly graduated tax regime in place, with top earners contributing a significant share of their income to the state to pay for all of society ’s needs. In some Scandinavian countries, income disparity is discouraged, and guidelines exist in terms of how big a difference may exist between the lowest labour rate and the highest executive pay. In South Africa, this ratio is not regulated, and the

Which ethical theory best defines a socialist state? Why?

4.1.5 The moral dimensions of different economic systems

The three different economic systems and their respective economic and moral gains have been discussed above. Each of these three macroeconomic systems also has a darker moral side, which will be outlined below.

Critiques against the free market The first major moral concern with the free market is the manner in which it trumpets individual ’s rights over that of the common interest. When people such as Donald Trump or Jack Walsh are heralded as truly successful, the only measure that is applied is now much money they accrued as individuals, and questions are hardly raised about how many lives and livelihoods of others they might have destroyed in their race to the top. Secondly, the major assumption on which the free-market system rests, namely that all individuals are prifit- maximising economic agents, tends to simplify human behavior to a ridiculous extreme. People have richer dreams and hopes for the world in which they live, and even the core management theory that drives the free-market model specifies that meaningful work delivers better results. There is no denying that each person aims to earn a certain necessary or desired threshold of income, but money is hardly an end in itself as this assumption would have one believe. Thirdly, the free-market ideology assumes that everything can be regulated through market forces, and that there is no need for the state other than providing the minimum level of security to its citizens. This assumption has been proven wrong time and again, as most recently demonstrated by the dramatic failure of the global financial and banking industries, yet this assumption persists amongst free market advocates. The most enduring criticism against the free market remains its inability to ensure an implicit fair distribution of society ’s gains. Owners of capital hold power and can use this

power to accrue even more wealth and capital through extracting rent (an economic term that denotes the difference between the value added by a labourer and the actual wage received for adding that value) from its labour force Capitalism has spawned a consumerist society that is at odds with the major tenets of most mainstream religions. Competition in the marketplace demands a constant effort by manufacturers to come up with new product innovations, many of which the true benefit to society is seriously in doubt. The advertising industry manipulate the aspirations of the public in order to keep the demand curve for more products and services shifting outwards, creating more production opportunities for the owners of capital. In the process, the sustainability of our natural environment gets put under growing pressure. Finally, capitalism promotes the ideas of externalising cost and internalising profit within the firm. Although capitalism does not stand alone in its responsibility for the ecological devastation that has been caused all over the world and that threatens the very sustainability of life on earth, capitalism does not have the preservation of bio-system, ecosystem nor species as central concern. The extinction of many a species can be directly attributed to some economic agents ’ pursuit of profit. It remains an open question whether an industry should be allowed to pay for the right to destroy any natural environment (therefore internalising the ecological cost of production).

4.1.6 Critiques against communism

There are several moral and practical reasons why a centrally commanded economic system presents a problem. The first concern is the lack of freedom for the individual. We take it as a given today that one should have the opportunity, and in fact, that right is enshrined in the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in our own Constitution. Yet, under a centrally controlled regime, such choices did not necessarily pertain and the opportunity to switch careers, or to pursue one ’s own economic fortunes, simply did not exist. If we had to hold individual freedom as a morally justifiable right, communism would per definition

be immoral. The second concern relates to the inefficiency of such a system. In the absence of the pricing system, there is a lag between real supply and demand and production adjustments were often made too late, if at all. The result could either be the scarcity of some basic commodities, of which the bread-lines in the soviet states became the symbol, or else, there might have been an over-supply and waste of other goods. All in all, the ability of such an economy to move close to optimal production efficiency has been proven problematic. There is an assumed moral duty on the part of the state, in a world of scarcity, to ensure a political platform that enables maximum productivity in its economy for its citizens, against the deliberate choice of a system that does not deliver optimally. Finally, if the true ideological underpinning of the central command systems was justice in distribution of society ’s gains, the real scourge be immoral. The second concern relates to the inefficiency of such a system. In the absence of the pricing system, there is a lag between real supply and demand and production adjustments were often made too late, if at all. The result could either be the scarcity of some basic commodities, of which the bread-lines in the soviet states became the symbol, or else, there might have been an over-supply and waste of other goods. All in all, the ability of such an economy to move close to optimal production efficiency has been proven problematic. There is an assumed moral duty on the part of the state, in a world of scarcity, to ensure a political platform that enables maximum productivity in its economy for its citizens, against the deliberate choice of a system that does not deliver optimally. Finally, if the true ideological underpinning of the central command systems was justice in distribution of society ’s gains, the real scourge

Is K a n t ’ s theory applicable to Communism? Read y o u r prescribed textbook and write your response as an essay.

4.1.7 Critiques against the socialist state

The first of the two biggest critiques generally raised against socialism is that it removes the motivation and incentive for individuals to perform at their absolute best. Why would someone work harder just to be over-taxed and to see his or her taxes being allocated to the benefit of others in society? The basic moral argument is that each of us should get awarded according to our merit, i.e., for the quality and quantity of our labour. This might be a fair critique, yet it is interesting to note that production has not ground to a halt in the socialist style economies of heavily-taxed Scandinavian states, and that this critique might therefore not necessarily hold true in all cases. People might get out of bed for more than just money. Perhaps there is merit in it for some people to work harder in order to help provide for less fortunate in society. The second concern, and one often heard in the South Africa context, is the so-called ‘moral free-ride r’ problem. Where a government provides free healthcare to all its citizens, which effectively gets paid for by the taxes raised by government, is it fair that healthy triathletes pay the same taxes as someone who eats junk food, never exercises, and smokes and drinks a lot-all to the determent of his or her health? Surely, the latter person is taking less responsibility for the possible costs to

be imposed on the national health system, yet pays a similar kind of tax rate as the super-healthy. The current government in South Africa has embraced the requirement for a nominally free-market model in order to attract fore in investment, yet infuses this model with a strong socialist agenda, given that the ideological history of the liberation movement was steeped in socialism. One should note that the previous government also participated actively in the economy as incumbent, and was hardly a bastion of the unfettered market model. Perhaps the most significant difference between the two periods of government has been the expansion of the social safety net to all citizens through housing, public health, water and electrification supply, and the introduction of income grants for unemployed, disable and elderly citizens. From a moral perspective, current government policy tries to strike a fine moral be imposed on the national health system, yet pays a similar kind of tax rate as the super-healthy. The current government in South Africa has embraced the requirement for a nominally free-market model in order to attract fore in investment, yet infuses this model with a strong socialist agenda, given that the ideological history of the liberation movement was steeped in socialism. One should note that the previous government also participated actively in the economy as incumbent, and was hardly a bastion of the unfettered market model. Perhaps the most significant difference between the two periods of government has been the expansion of the social safety net to all citizens through housing, public health, water and electrification supply, and the introduction of income grants for unemployed, disable and elderly citizens. From a moral perspective, current government policy tries to strike a fine moral

4.1.8 Macro-ethics and moral challenges to the enterprise

This final section explains how the macro-environment may impact business, and sets certain constraints on strategic and operational options for the owners and managers of the enterprise. We will look at the macroeconomic policy of Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) and Employment Equity and their impact on business enterprises in South Africa. In South Africa, we have a variety of political influences that gives our economy its particular flavour. During the height of the apartheid days, certain jobs were reserved for individuals of a particular race, and people of colour were further limited to where they could open their shops. Some industries, such as the production of sorghum beer, were closed to certain races. As political organisations in opposition to apartheid eventually banned, the only remaining place for political organising was in industry. Through a militant labour movement, National strikes and stay-away were the political tools of the 1980s, and it hurt the owners of capital in the same manner as the international trade sanctions against the country did. No surprise then that after our democratic transition of 1994, the African National Congress took the helm with the support of both the labour movement and the South African Communist Party, and faced an challenge in balancing the realities of competing globally within the ideological framework of these three alliance partners. From this balancing act, several macro- economic policies emerged that tried to address the imbalances of the past. Amongst these policies are Black Economic Empowerment and Employment Equity, which influence the day to-day management of South African enterprises. Firstly, with the government laying out clear goals for Black Economic Empowerment (BEE), companies have been tasked to ensured that the ownership of capital no longer remains in white hands alone. Government has played an active role in redirecting their procurement to these BEE companies, and there are several guidelines about how the transfer of capital towards other population groups should be achieved. Secondly, given the restrictive business and educational opportunities of the past, South Africa has chosen the employment equity (or affirmative action) route towards levelling the playing field. Under the Employment Equity Act, companies set goals to eventually employ a personnel complement that is truly reflective of the broader demographics of our society, and are tasked to give preference to the hiring of so-called ‘Previously Disadvantaged Individuals’ (PDIs) in their hiring of new staff. Neither Black Economic Empowerment nor Employment Equity is without its detractors, yet the underlying idea is to establish a just and fair This final section explains how the macro-environment may impact business, and sets certain constraints on strategic and operational options for the owners and managers of the enterprise. We will look at the macroeconomic policy of Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) and Employment Equity and their impact on business enterprises in South Africa. In South Africa, we have a variety of political influences that gives our economy its particular flavour. During the height of the apartheid days, certain jobs were reserved for individuals of a particular race, and people of colour were further limited to where they could open their shops. Some industries, such as the production of sorghum beer, were closed to certain races. As political organisations in opposition to apartheid eventually banned, the only remaining place for political organising was in industry. Through a militant labour movement, National strikes and stay-away were the political tools of the 1980s, and it hurt the owners of capital in the same manner as the international trade sanctions against the country did. No surprise then that after our democratic transition of 1994, the African National Congress took the helm with the support of both the labour movement and the South African Communist Party, and faced an challenge in balancing the realities of competing globally within the ideological framework of these three alliance partners. From this balancing act, several macro- economic policies emerged that tried to address the imbalances of the past. Amongst these policies are Black Economic Empowerment and Employment Equity, which influence the day to-day management of South African enterprises. Firstly, with the government laying out clear goals for Black Economic Empowerment (BEE), companies have been tasked to ensured that the ownership of capital no longer remains in white hands alone. Government has played an active role in redirecting their procurement to these BEE companies, and there are several guidelines about how the transfer of capital towards other population groups should be achieved. Secondly, given the restrictive business and educational opportunities of the past, South Africa has chosen the employment equity (or affirmative action) route towards levelling the playing field. Under the Employment Equity Act, companies set goals to eventually employ a personnel complement that is truly reflective of the broader demographics of our society, and are tasked to give preference to the hiring of so-called ‘Previously Disadvantaged Individuals’ (PDIs) in their hiring of new staff. Neither Black Economic Empowerment nor Employment Equity is without its detractors, yet the underlying idea is to establish a just and fair

4.1.9 Doing the right thing – ethical decision making

Ethics is a complex area. It is concerned with the kind of people we are. This could

be called the “ethics of being”. It is also concerned with the things we do or fail to do. This could be called the “ethics of doing”. This short statement has the latter as it focus – what we do, and how we decide what we ought or ought not to do.

Ethics does not provide simple answers, except on the most patently obvious issues. That does not mean ethics are of no value. They are truly our lane markers along the highway of life. They offer guidance in lines of action.

Ethics is about right and wrong in human conduct. Ethics is about choices, dilemmas and grey areas. It explores the question of what we ought to do, rather than simply discuss what people could do or actually do.

As free persons we are constantly faced with making choices. Some of these will

be trivial such as what outfit to wear today, some will be much more serious issues, even involving life and death. The decisions we make here can be so fundamental that they will shape the kind of people we become. This is why ethical decisions have to be made carefully.

In order to know what to do in a given situation, we need to explore the issue carefully in terms of the action involved, its consequences and the context in which it takes place. Once we have clarified these points, our personal values will guide us in making the final decision.

Where do you stand? The position taken on an ethical issue will depend on two things: values, and

priorities. Values are the things that we hold important for our sense of who we are. They are expressed in statements such as "human life and dignity should be protected," or "cheating is wrong." They develop over time and are influenced by family, religion, education, peers and a whole range of experiences, both good and bad, that have helped shape us.

In some situations even people who agree on the same values will disagree on the right choice because a particular situation brings different values into conflict and requires us to prioritise our values. This might occur when discussing the need for In some situations even people who agree on the same values will disagree on the right choice because a particular situation brings different values into conflict and requires us to prioritise our values. This might occur when discussing the need for

Sometimes, there will be no clear right and wrong, and both terms of a choice will appear equally bad. This kind of choice is sometimes referred to as a dilemma, where there does not seem to be any way out without compromising one's values, or where one's decision will have inevitable bad consequences. Sometimes the alternatives presenting themselves are so confronting or paralysing that there is not really a choice at all. In Sophie's Choice, Sophie had to choose which of her two children should go to the gas oven. This is an impossible choice.

Suggestions for making ethical decisions: • Identify the core ethical issue or issues involved;

• Make sure you understand the facts; • Identify the main players in this issue and see if you can identify their interests; • List the values at stake or in conflict in this matter; • Examine the possible options and their likely consequences; • Choose the option you think best caters for the values and principles you believe

to be important; • Give reasons (to yourself or others) why you have chosen this option and show

why it is a better resolution of the issue than the other options; • Make your decision, but keep an open mind.

In wrestling with decisions you need to clearly identify your values, think of the possible options and their likely consequences, and then choose the option you think best suits the values and principles you hold important. If you go through this process carefully, you will not ensure that everybody agrees with you or that your decision is better than anyone else's, but you will be able to defend your position effectively.

Even after you have weighed up all the evidence in the light of your personal values, it is important to keep and open mind. If you get further information or someone else presents a better argument, you may be able to change your opinion without compromising your values.

Sometimes, however, in spite of all our efforts to clarify an issue in which laws, policies or guidelines are unclear, we may still not know what to make of a situation. In this case, and if an urgent decision has to be made, one can only do one's best. As long as we do that, all we can be charged with is a mistake or an error of judgment.

Do the right thing! Sometimes, the choices we must make to live up to our value system will be

neither confusing, nor impossible. They will be stark and clear, but will demand 57 neither confusing, nor impossible. They will be stark and clear, but will demand 57