58
5 Uncertainties of Life: Evidentials
In Amahuaca Evidentials are linked to declarative speech acts and are employed in narrative discourse such as folktales and myths, historical accounts, personal experiences, and in conversation. There are
three distinctions in the evidential system: direct knowledge, reported information, and conjecture. Evidential markers are suffixed to a variety of word classes verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and
adverbs in indicative sentence constructions that terminate with the declarative mode marker -nu-qui. As already mentioned, the declarative marker -nu generally introduces new information, while -qui is
used for known information. This, however, is not a strict rule. Some speakers use the two markers interchangeably. The declarative marker either -nu or -qui is attached to the last constituent of an
independent clause or sentence and means something like “this is the way it is”. The constituent can be a verb, noun, pronoun, or adjective.
Evidential markers are not restricted as to tense or aspect. The markers can be employed in positive and negative clauses. They function as clitics, occur in dependent as well as independent clauses and
sentences, and appear to operate on clause or sentence level rather than phrase level.
5.1 Zero marker for firsthand knowledge
The marker for direct firsthand knowledge is zero Ø. Outside of the sentence-final declarative marker there is no explicit evidentiary support as to the truth-value of the information or its source be it visual,
sensory, direct experience, or the like. The declarative suffix -nu-qui that best translates as ‘that is the way it is’ declares the speaker’s commitment to the assertion. It can mean: “I was told” but Amahuaca
does not have passive voice, it is an anti-passive language. 154
Nihii ca-hax -mun-Ø jan vunoo -shin
-xo -hnu.
woods go-PAST.PF-FO he get.lost-yesterday -3PAST.PFTV -DECL
‘Having gone hunting lit.:go to the woods he got lost yesterday.’
5.2 The reportative -quiha
The reportative -quiha ‘hearsay’ is a clitic that is either suffixed to the first constituent in a clause or sentence or to the phrase that introduces new information. It is often preceded by the focus marker -mun.
Since Amahuaca is a clause-chaining language, it is not at all rare to find ten or more dependent clauses preceding the final independent clause. The reportative clitic might be repeated on several clauses,
particularly in fiction such as folktales or myths, but to some degree also in non-fictional discourse. The clitic does not affect the speaker’s commitment to the reliability of the information. It merely indicates
that the information is obtained through hearsay. A comparison of examples 154 above with 155 below shows that the usage of the hearsay clitic
contrasts with zero marking in constructions with direct firsthand knowledge. 155
Nihii ca-hax -mun -quiha
jan vunoo -shin -xo
-hnu. woods go-PAST.PF -FO -REPORT he get.lost -yesterday -3REC.PAST.PFTV-DECL
‘It is said that he, having gone hunting lit.: go to the woods, got lost a few days ago. The following examples show how the reportative is used in discourse. The text speaks of an old
visiting custom that has been handed down from generation to generation.
156 Vahaa
-hi -mun-quiha xuni -vo vo -ni
-xo -hnu.
make.visits -INF-FO -REPORT old.folk-PL go.PL -REM.PAST -3PAST.PFTV -DECL ‘It is said that the old folks went to make visits.’
157 a. Vahaa -hi
vo -xon -mun-quiha
jato -vu make.visits-INF go.PL -SS.SQ.TR-FO -REPORT them-with
xuni -vaun
jato vuchi -ni -xoh -qui.
old.folks -ERG.PL them meet -REM.PAST -3PAST -DECL ‘It is said that when they the old folks made visits, those like them the old folks of the village
receivedwelcomed them.’ b. Jato vuchi -xon
-quiha jato canon
jato -qui -tzin vahaa -hi
them receive-SQ.SS.TR-REPORT them nowthen them-LOC-next make.visit-INF vo -xahin -non
jato yohi -vahin go.PL -FUT -PROSP them say -move.away.SQ.VAL2
vo -nii -vaun
jajaa -hi -mun -quiha:
go -REM.PAST -ERG.PL like.that-SS.NONSQ.ITR-FO -REPORT ‘Receiving them, they the visitors then told them the hosts that it would be their turn to visit
them next time; and a long time after they the visitors have left, they the former hosts are said to say to each other like this:’
c. —Canon -co -mun nocun-tza
yovaa-vo -qui vahaa -non
now -EMPH.IMP-FO our -other great -PL -LOC make.visit -PURP
vo -xanh -can -pu mai, xon
yohi -yohi-hi -quiha
go.PL -IMP.PL-PL -M.VOC hey SQ.SS.TR say -say -NON.SQ.SS.ITR-REPORT vo -can -ni
-xo -hqui.
go.PL -they-REM.PAST-3PAST-DECL ‘“Hey, now let’s go to make visits to our big brothers,” saying like this, it is said, they went.’
A further use of -quiha by Amahuaca speakers is to get the attention of someone, i.e. if A wants to talk to B, and B does not pay attention, C exclaims: “quiha quiha”, thus directing B’s attention to A.
5.3 Conjecture
