CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Language and Society
Hymes has proposed and ethnographic framework which takes into account the various factors that are involved in speaking
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. Ethnography of a communicative event is a description of all the
factors that are relevant in understanding how that particular communicative achieves its objectives.
The setting and scene of speech are important. Setting refers to the time and place. Scene refers to the abstract psychological
setting, or the cultural definition of the occasion. The participants include various combinations of speaker –
listener, addressor – addresser, or sender – receiver. Ends refers to the conventionally recognized an expected out
comes of an exchange as well as to the personal goals that participants seek to accomplish on particular occasions.
Act sequence refers to the actual form and content of what is said: the precise word used how they are used and the relationship
of what is said to the actual topic at hand.
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Ronald Wardaugh, 1999. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Black Well Publisher, Malden Massachuset USA. P.238
Key refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a particular message is conveyed: light-hearted, serious, precise, pedantic,
mocking, sarcastic, pompous, and so on. Instrumentalities refers to the choice of channel, like as oral
written or telegraphic and to the actual forms of speech employed, such as the language, dialect, code or register that is chosen.
Norms of interaction and interpretation refers to the specific behaviors and proprieties that attach to speaking and also to how
these may be viewed by someone who does not share them, like as loudness, silence, and gaze return and so on.
Genre refers to clearly demarcated types of utterance: such things as poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers, lectures, and
editorials. In the other hand there are two aspects of language behavior a very
important from social point of view: 1.
The function of language in establishing social relationship.
2. The role played by language in conveying information about
the speaker. We shall concentrate for the moment on the second role, but
it is clear that both these aspect of linguistics behavior are
reflections of the fact that there is a close interrelationship between language and society
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. B.
Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is the examination of language use by me mbers of speech community. It involves looking at both language
form and language function and includes the study of both spoken interaction and written texts. It identifies linguistic features that
characterize different genres as well as social and cultural factors that aid in our interpretation and understanding of different text and
types of talk. A discourse analysis of written texts might include a study of topic development and cohesion across the sentences, while
an analysis of spoken language might focus on these aspects plus turn-taking practices, opening and closing sequences of social
encounters, or narrative structure. The study of discourse has developed in a variety of
disciplines-sociolinguistics, anthropology, sociology, and social psychology. Thus discourse analysis takes different theoretical
perspectives and analytic approaches: speech act theory, interactional sociolinguistic, and ethnography of communication,
pragmatics, conversation analysis, and variation analysis
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. Although
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Peter Trudgil, 1974. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction. Great Britania. P. 14
5
McCarthy, M., Carter, R. 1994. Language as discourse: Perspectives for language teachers. New York: Longman
each approach emphasizes different aspects of language use, they all view language as social interaction.
This digest focuses on the application of discourse analysis to second language teaching and learning
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. It provides examples of how teachers can improve their teaching practices by investigating
actual language use both in and out of the classroom, and how students can learn language through exposure to different types of
discourse. Discourse is often defined in two ways: a particular unit
language above the sentence, and a particular focus on language use. These two definitions of discourse reflect the difference
between formalist and functionalist paradigms
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.
“Structural” “Functional”
Structure of language code as grammar
Structure of speech act, even as ways of speaking
Use merely implements, perhaps limits may correlate
with, what is analyzed as code; analysis of code prior to
analysis of use. Analysis of use prior to analysis
of code organization of use discloses additional features
and relations; shows code and use in integral dialectical
relation.
Referential function, fully semantic zed uses as norm.
Gamut of stylistic or social functions.
Elements and structures analytically arbitrary or
universal. Elements and structure as
ethnographically appropriate “psychiatrically” in Sapir’s
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Celce-Murcia, M,. Olshtain,E. 2000. Discourse and context in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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Schiffrin, Deborah. 1994. Approaches to Discourse. Black Well Publisher. Oxford UK Cambridge USA. P.21
sense Functional equivalence of
languages, all language essentially equal.
Functional adaptive differentiation
of languages, varieties, styles, these being
existentially actually not necessarily equivalent.
Single homogeneous code and community.
Speech community as matrix of code repertoires, or speech
styles “organization of diversity”.
Fundamental concepts, such as speech community, speech act,
fluent speaker, function of speech and of languages, taken
for granted or arbitrarily postulated.
Fundamental concepts taken as problematic and to be
investigated
C. The Basic Function Language
Kategori