11 3. Selection and development of syllabus type
The choice of syllabus type is done when the general category of a language program has been decided.
4. Production of a proto syllabus The designer selects and combines syllabus contents which are in line with
the syllabus type. It includes description of language and language use to be covered in this program.
5. Production of a pedagogical syllabus In this step, teaching materials, the learning and testing approaches, and
testing sequence are developed. 6. Development and implementation of classroom procedures
a. Development of classroom procedures 1 Selection of exercise type and teaching technique
2 Preparation of lesson plans 3 Preparation of weekly schedule
b. Implementation of classroom procedures 1 Principles
2 Desired outcomes 3 Exploitation or creation of teaching materials
7. Evaluation It describes the evaluation of the students, the evaluation of program, and
the evaluation of teaching.
12
Figure 2. 2: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model Yalden, 1987:p88
2. Reading
The following explanation deals with the nature of reading, reading process, the level of reading process, and principles of teaching reading.
a. The Nature of Reading
Nunan 2003 states that reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning.
While Rough 1984 states that reading is thinking. It is the reconstruction of the ideas of others Rouch, 1984, p.1. In his b
ook “Teaching Reading”, Rough explained two definitions of reading. The first relegates reading to a mechanical
process whereby written letters andor words are translated into the spoken sounds they represent. The second definition of reading views it as a thought-receiving
process during which the ideas and thoughts of the author are conveyed to the reader through writing. As stated in Rough’s book, Tinker and McCullough
1975: p.9 also state that reading involves the identification and recognition of printed or written symbols which serve as stimuli for recall of meaning built up
Evaluation Development
and implementation
of classroom procedures
Production of a pedagogical
syllabus Production
of a proto syllabus
Selection and
development of syllabus
type Description
of purpose Need
Survey
13 through past experience, and further the construction of new meanings through the
reader’s manipulation of relevant concepts already in his possession.
b. Reading Process
There are three approaches of reading process. Those are bottom-up, top- down, and interactive models. Bottom-up approach consists of lower-level reading
processes. This model is the model when the students begin to recognize the letter and sound, then followed by word recognition, building up to the identification of
grammatical structures, sentences, and longer texts. In other words, it means that reader begins with the smallest elements and builds up to comprehension of what
is being read. Comprehension
Figure 2.3: Bottom-up approach to reading
On the other hand, top-down models begin with the comprehension. In top-down model, the students analyze the text. This model helps students guess or
predict the meaning of the text.
Reading begins with reader background knowledge
Figure 2.4: Top-down approach to reading
14 The last model, interactive model, is the combination of bottom-up and
top-down models. This model is needed by students in order to understand the text well. By applying the top-down, they can recognize the vocabulary and get the
information of the text. Then, by applying the bottom-up model, students can predict the content of meaning of the text.
Reader Background knowledge
Individual letters and sounds
Figure 2.5: Interactive approach to reading
c. Level of Reading Process
According to Cohen 1997, the reading process can be divided into four levels:
1 Grammatical level It deals with the ability to analyze a text and divide words, phrases, or
sentences into grammatical categories, grammatical function, or their syntactic role. It is the basic level of the reading processes and it can also be the media of
learning sentence structures. 2 The information level
This level is basically related with digging out information from the text. The readers are trying to reveal the message from the text. The vocabulary
Comprehension
15 analysis is needed in this level. Therefore, it can also be the media of learning
vocabulary. It helps the readers not only to obtain reading skill but also to master vocabulary.
3 The Discourse level In this level, readers do not deal with the appropriate connection between
portions of a text, and the grammatical or cohesion lexical relationships between the different elements of a text. It deals with the relationships which link every
meaning of the sentences in a text. So, there is an easy understanding text which is called logical or rational. It can develop readers’ critical thinking and problem
solving since it assists the readers in finding the logical understanding of a text. 4
The writer’s intent The writer’s intent refers to the attitude and the tone. Sometimes
punctuation, intensifiers, and invectives indicate the attitude and the tone of the writer. Understanding the writer’s intent is the highest level of the reading
processes since it requires the grammatical mastery, the vocabulary mastery, and the logical understanding in conveying the meaning of the text.
d. Principles of Teaching Reading
