An Error Analysis in Using Direct and Indirect Speech Made Twelfth Year Students of Hospitality Accomodation Program, SMK Raksana 2 Medan

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1Previous Studies

Error analysis has been analyzed in some previous theses which help the writer in completing the thesis. Some of the previous studies are:

– Batubara (2010) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of Auxiliary Verbs Made by the 2006/2007 Ninth Grade Students of Madrasah Tsanawiyah Al-Ulum Medan. Finds the most error made by students is the using of do (36.26%), the using of be (32.90%), and an error in using have (30.84%).

– Napitupulu (2010) in her thesis entitled An Error of Using Adverbs by the Eleventh Year Students of SMA Negeri 7 Medan. Based on her research, there are some errors which made by students omission (21.12%), misinformation (25.35%), misordering (23.94%), and overgeneralization (29.57%).

– Pujiasi (2010) in her thesis entitled The Errors of Unity and Coherence in Writing English Paragraph Made by The Sixth Semester Students of D-3 English Study Program of USU: A Case Study. From the analysis, the errors are appeared especially in using the unity elements. There are 24.03% (37 errors) and 75.97% (117 errors).

– Achirani (2011) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of Using Present Tense Made by Students of Second Year Junior High School of Madrasah Tsanawiyah Al-Washliyah 16 Perbaungan. Finds the most error made by students is present perfect continuous (93.27%), simple present (75.74%), Present Perfect (69.28%), and present continuous (61.71%).

– Rukiah (2011) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis in Using Passive Voice Made by Eleventh Year Students of MAN 1 Payabungan. Her Findings are she counts the percentage of correct and incorrect answers of passive voice by students of 32 questions. Finds the most error made by students in simple future tense (27.75%), simple past tense (26.59%), and the last is simple present tense (20.23%).

– Djayanti (2012) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of the Use of Simple Sentence Made by the Ninth Grade Students of SMP Negeri 2 Pancur Batu. Finds the most error made by students is formation errors, involves: preposition, conjunction, noun, adverb, adjective, gerund, modals, be, article, pronoun, and determiner (48.52%), arranging errors, involves: misordering of verb phrase and misordering of noun phrase (19.95%), deduction errors, involves: -ing, article, verb, preposition, reflexive pronoun, pronoun, determiner, 3rd person singular verb, possessive maker, and be (25.15%), adding errors, involves: determiner, plural maker (s/es), -ing, modal, be, possessive maker, verb, preposition, pronoun, adjective, article, noun, and 3rd person singular verb maker (11.39%). The conclusion is the ability in using simple sentences of students in SMP negeri 2 Pancur Batu especially class IX-1 is not good.

– Sembiring (2012) in her thesis entitled An Error Analysis of Using Pat Tenses in Narrative Text Made by the Twelve Graders of SMA Negeri 1 Tanjung Morawa. The finding of analysis shows that the total of students’ correct answers in the test are 807 numbers or 68.97% and incorrect are 363 numbers or 31.03%. There are 4 types of errors that for omission are 97 or 26.72%. So, the dominant type of error is misinformation. And there are 4 causes of errors that for over-generalization there were 12 or 3.31% for ignore of rule restriction there were

137 or 37.74% for incomplete application of rules there were 93 or 25.62% and for cause of error false concepts hypothesized there were 121 or 33.33%. So, the dominant causes of errors were ignorance of rule restriction.

– Wahyuni (2014) in her thesis entitled Teaching Writing Design Based on the Students’ Difficulties in Writing Narrative Texts. Concludes that from 35 second grade students of Junior High School, there were 9 students didn’t face difficulty in writing narrative text and 26 students faced difficulties as below:

a) In using past tense occurred 152 cases or 80.85% from all cases. b) In using conjunction occurred 26 cases or 13.83% from all cases. c) In using adjective occurred 10 cases or 5.32% from all cases.

– Ubol (1981) in his paper entitled An Error Analysis of English Compositions by Thai Students. He found that there are 3 kinds of errors which are made by the Thai students. They were: grammatical or structural errors (694 occurrences or 34.73 %), lexical errors (710 occurrences or 35.53%), and error of style (594 occurrences or 29.73%). So, the dominant kinds of errors is lexical errors (710 occurrences or 35.53%).

2.2Direct Speech

Direct speech is usually used in a written text or conversation among the communicants. Chalker and Weiner (1988:188) state that direct speech is the reporting of speech by repeating the actual words used, without making any grammatical changes. Parrot (2004:217) states that direct speech conveys exactly what someone has said often to dramatize, to create a sense of immediacy, and because the precise words used were in some way important (for example funny or strange).

Furthermore Parrot (2004:413) states that direct speech generally has indicated by enclosing it in either single or double inverted commas (quotations marks) ‘…’ or “…”. If this direct speech is enclosed in double inverted commas (quotation marks), then we use single inverted commas to enclose any further direct speech that is embedded in this.

For example:

“What do you mean, ‘Mary’s had enough’?” or vice versa.

Basically, Direct Speech consists of 2 main parts, they are Reporting Clause and Reported Clause.

A. Reporting Clause

Reporting Clause is an utterance (such as: “she said”, “he shouted” or “Andi asks”) that identifies the speaker (and sometimes the tone) of a reported clause in either direct or indirect speech. It is also known as the initial sentence in direct speech. It consists of 2 main parts, they are subject and reporting verbs.

a. Subject

Dykes (2007:92) states subject is that which is under our attention, i.e. the person or thing that we are talking about. Every sentence has to has a subject in it. It is impossible when there is no subject in a sentence. It can be human, animal or thing which control a sentence. It occurs in the common sentences but not in direct speech. Direct speech is just using human/s as a subject because only human can speak and writing. The subjects are personal pronouns such as I, You, We, They, He, and She. We can also write human’s names which indicate the subject itself such as John, William, Anne, etc.

b. Reporting Verbs

Reporting verbs is the verbs which report the speaker speech. Reporting verb is used both in direct and indirect speech. The most common reporting verbs are ‘tell’ and ‘say’ but there are so many verbs which have the same function, that is as reporting verbs.

Admit Insist Inform Threaten Advice Mention Notify Beg Agree Suggest Persuade Convince Announce Promise Reassure Encourage Claim Warn Remind Forbid Complain Propose Demand Instruct Declare Assure Offer Invite Explain Refuse Order Command

There is a pattern to make a reporting clause. Pattern:

For examples: William says,…. Anne complains,…. “…” They Suggest. B. Reported Clause

Reported clause is a bound clause that reports what someone has said or thought, bound to main clause that contains a verb of saying and thinking. Reported clause is known as the speaker’s speech. It is the main idea of a direct speech. We have to consider so many aspects when we talk about it. It can be formed as statement, question, command or the mixture of them.

a. Statement

Statement is used to inform an information to the others. There is no meaning from a speaker or writer to their listener or reader about their statement. It is just to inform without any purpose which bond the reader or listener. It usually ended with a period.

Statement: Roger fell into the river.

Reported clause formed statement: …, “Roger fell into the river.” b. Question

This kind of sentence is used to ask something from the speaker to the listener. The speaker needs the response of the listener to answer what the speaker’s wants. Question mark is used in this sentence.

Question: Do you have some money?

Reported clause formed question: …, “Do you have some money?” c. Command/Request

Command/Request is used to order/request someone to do something. There is something that a speaker wants to order to his listener. Command mark is used in this sentence type.

Command: Shut the door! Don’t be lazy

Reported clause formed command: …, “Shut the door!” …, “Don’t be lazy!” d. Mixing Sentence

Thomson and Martinet (1986) in Zebua (2009) state direct speech may consist of statement + question, question + command, command + statement, or all three together. We can mix kinds of sentence in one sentence.

Examples:

– “I can’t drive. Do you?” she asked. (Statement + Question)

– “Mother is coming. Get hiding behind the chair!” He commanded. (Statement + Command)

– She said, “Can you get out from my house? I am bored on you.” (Question + Statement)

– “Do you have any money? Give it to me!” the thief said. (Question + Command)

– “Please, don’t drink too much! Remember that you will have to drive home,” she said. (Command + Statement)

– “Please, don’t make any noise! Do you want a bad grade?” (Command + Question)

2.2.1Tenses

We can’t deny that tenses are very important in writing especially for direct speech. English has its own tenses which make it unique. The tenses are used to build a sentence in a language which considers so many aspects for example, the suitable subject, the verbs and the changes, and also the time of the sentence. Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:55) state tense is a grammatical category referring to the time of the situation; the tense is indicated by the form of the verb. Dykes (2007:44) states tense is indicated whenever we use a finite verb.

In writing direct speech, we have to concern to tenses because we can’t write the right direct speech without the right tenses.

– Simple Present Tense

b. We say, “He doesn’t invite our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Do we get the present now?”

– Present Continuous Tense

a. Clare says, “I am meeting the little girls today.”

b. We say, “He is not inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Are we getting the presents now?”

– Present Perfect Tense

a. Clare says, “I have met the little girls today.”

b. We say, “He has not invited our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Have we got the present?”

– Present Perfect Continuous Tense

a. Clare says, “I have been meeting the little girls.”

b. We say, “He has not been inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They ask him, “Have we been getting the presents?”

– Simple Past Tense

a. Clare said, “I wanted to meet the little girls yesterday.” b. We said, “He did not invite our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Did we get the presents?”

– Past Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I was meeting the little girls yesterday.”

b. We said, “He was not inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Were we getting the presents?”

– Simple Future Tense

a. Clare said, “I will meet the little girls tomorrow.”

c. They asked him, “Will we get the presents?” – Future Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I will be meeting the little girls tomorrow.”

b. We said, “He will not be inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Will we be getting the presents?

– Future Perfect Tense

a. Clare said, “I will have met the little girls.”

b. We said, “He will not have invited our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Will we have got the presents?”

– Future Perfect Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I will have been meeting the little girls.”

b. We said, “He will not have been inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Will we have been getting the presents?

– Simple Past Future Tense

a. Clare said, “I would meet the little girls.”

b. We said, “He would not invite our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Would we get the presents?”

– Past Future Continuous Tense

a. Clare said, “I would be meeting the little girls.”

b. We said, “He would not be inviting our friends to the celebration.” c. They asked him, “Would we be getting the presents?

2.2.2Punctuation

Punctuation has a power in building a sentence in a language. It helps the reader to understand the writer’s aim. Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:187) state punctuation

helps the reader to understand the written communication by breaking it down into smaller components.

In writing direct speech, we will find so many punctuations on it such as, commas, quotation marks, ellipses, dash, tags, and period. We cannot deny that punctuation is so important to make the reader or listener know the ideas which a writer or speaker wants to share.

a. Commas

Dykes (2007) states the comma separates direct speech from narrative. Comma is used to separate the sentences in direct speech (reporting clause and reported clause). For examples:

John said, “I will come to your house.”

“We have to make the best decoration for this party,” they said.

There is no difference in using comma even there is a difference positions in writing the reporting and reported clause above.

b. Quotation Marks

Quotation marks or inverted commas are also known informally as quotes or speech marks. It placed either side of a word or phrase in order to identify it is a quotation, direct speech or a literal title or name.

Quotation marks are needed in writing direct speech. It can be an indicator that the sentence is direct speech which is so different with the indirect speech.

For examples:

He said, “I will type a proposal.”

c. Dash

Dash is used to indicate the unfinished remark. When it has done to indicate the unfinished remark, it should be followed by quotation marks without any comma or period.

For examples:

He says, “Steven, we “

She answered, “Yes… but I don’t see what ” d. Period

Period is used to indicate the ending of a statement. When we have put the period on a direct speech sentence, it should be ended with quotation mark. It can’t be allowed when we put a period outside the quotation marks.

For examples:

He said, “I will type a proposal.”

She said, “They can do it better than me.”

2.2.3Rules in Quoting Direct Speech

Greenbaum and Nelson (2002:189-192) state that there are some rules when we punctuate in direct speech. It will explain below:

– Initial Reporting Clause

A. It is usual to put a comma after the reporting clause and before the initial quotation marks:

 She told them, ’We should not waste food when millions are starving.’

B. We may use a colon instead of a comma, particularly if the direct speech contains more than one sentence:

 He turned to me and said: ‘For the first time in my life I understood who I was and what I was doing and why I was doing it.’

C. If the quotation is indented, it is not necessary to use quotation marks since the layout is a sufficient indication of direct speech.

D. If the quotation ends the sentence, we put a full stop, a question mark, an exclamation mark, or a dash before the final quotation marks.

 The reporter asked, ‘Has the general arrived?’

 The crowd cried, ‘Long live the President!’

E. The dash in indicates that the speaker has stopped in mid-sentence.

 She said, ‘I have done my share, but you –’

F. If the question mark or exclamation mark belongs to the sentence as a whole (not to the direct speech), it goes after the closing quotation marks:

 Did she say, ‘It is against my religious principles’?

 He actually said, ‘I amtoo busy to see you’!

G. In the rare situation when the question mark or exclamation mark belongs both to the sentence and to the direct speech, use only one mark and put it before the quotation marks:

 Did she say, ‘Is it against your religious principles?’ – Final Reporting Clause

A. If the direct speech sentence would ordinarily end in a full stop, put a comma before the quotation marks:

 ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied.

Otherwise, use a question mark or exclamation mark as appropriate:

 ‘Do you know the way?’ she asked.

B. The sentence may continue after the reporting clause:

 ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied, and put down the telephone.

 ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied; then he put down the telephone. – Medial Reporting Clause

A. The medial clause combines punctuation features associated with the initial and final reporting clause. The punctuation before the medial clause is the

same as for the final reporting clause:

 ‘I’m not yet ready,’ he replied. ‘You go ahead without me.’

 ‘Do you know the way?’ she asked. ‘I’m lost.’

 ‘Lights!’ he screamed. ‘Give me lights!’

B. If the reporting clause interrupts a sentence, use a comma even if the sentence would ordinarily have no punctuation:

 ‘When you are ready,’ he said, ‘let me know.’ (cf. When you are ready, let me know.)

 ‘I know,’ he said, ‘that they suspect me.’ (cf. I know that they suspect me.)

C. The punctuation after the medial reporting clause depends on whether the first part is an independent sentence. If it is, a full stop follows the reporting clause. If the reporting clause interrupts the sentence where the sentence would ordinarily have a comma or no punctuation, then a comma follows the clause. If the reporting clause is placed where the sentence would ordinarily have a semicolon, the semicolon follows the reporting clause:

 ‘The first two attempts to amend the constitution by convention succeeded,’ the senator said; ‘the next two attempts failed.’

D. The punctuation at the end of the sentence is the same as for the initial reporting clause. We therefore have a full stop before the closing quotation marks and an exclamation mark in. Here are two further examples:

 ‘Did you say,’ she asked, ‘that she would see me now?’

 ‘I have done my share,’ she said, ‘but you –’ – In General

A. It is normal to start a new paragraph when there is a change of speaker, whether or not the direct speech is accompanied by a reporting clause:

 ‘What was in the letter?’ she asked. ‘I can’t tell you. I couldn’t read it.’ ‘Why not?’

‘It was in Spanish.’

B. Use double quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation if you have used single quotation marks for the main quotation:

 ‘I said I’d take the job. Then I went to bed and thought, “What am I doing?” I don’t want my children to say “He was a good football coach”. I want them to think that I tried to do more than that.’

C. If the quotation is not in full, the punctuation mark that follows it comes after the quotation marks:

 The Colonel says he regards ‘the past 20 years just as an introduction’. He described the pleasure of seeing how deserts had become ‘not the Garden of Eden exactly, but a bit greener’, though he made it clear that self - fullfillment was not his aim.

D. Partial quotations draw attention to a significant part of what was said, and they may therefore be very brief:

 The newspapers carried reports of a famine of ‘biblical proportions’ in Ethiopia. Sometimes the party sounds a little too enthusiastic about enforcing majority ‘rights’.

E. In the last example the effect of inserting the quotation marks is to suggest that the writer does not accept responsibility for the appropriateness of the expression ‘rights’ in this context.

Whereas Azar (1993:364) in Zebua (2009) states that there are some rules in quoting direct speech. It will explain below:

– Put a comma after reporting clause: Lampard says, – Put quotation mark: Lampard says, “

– Capitalize the first letter of the quotation: Lampard says, “I – Write the quotation: Lampard says, “I will be a champion

– Put a final period and put quotation mark after it: Lampard says, “I will be a champion.”

– When there are two (or more) sentences in a quotation, put the quotation marks at the beginning and the end of whole quote.

For example:

“You come to my house. You take all my jewelry. You shot my servants down,” William said angrily.

– As with the period, put the quotation mark at the end of the quote.

2.3Indirect Speech

Indirect speech is a means the content of statements, questions or other utterances, without quoting them explicitly as is done in direct speech. Indirect speech also

known as reported speech or indirect discourse. It is absolutely the opposite of the direct speech.

Basically direct and indirect speech are almost the same, those are the speech which always be used in our lives. We can be used it when we want to retell someone’s speech to the other. It means that it is the past forms of direct speech. There are so many indicators to indicate the indirect speech or the special characteristics of indirect speech.

2.3.1The Change of Sentence Structure

The change of sentence structure means that the structure of one sentence to another is changed. We can see it directly and it is concrete. It connects to the use of punctuations. We can conclude that it is direct or indirect speech directly when we see the sentence itself. In direct speech we can see the used of comma after the reporting clause and the quotation marks (single or double quotation mark) in the reported clause but it doesn’t happen in indirect speech. Indirect speech never uses comma and quotation marks. So, it can be diversification between direct and indirect speech visually.

For examples:

She said, “My mother cooks well.” (Direct Speech) She said that her mother cooked well. (Indirect Speech)

From the sentences above, it is clear that there is a diversification between the sentences above. The comma above (direct speech) is replaced by word “that” and the quotation mark is missing without any replacement. Even the comma and quotation mark is missing in indirect speech but there is no changes with the other

marks (period). It is not only occurred in statement sentence, it also happens in command and question sentence.

1. Command/Request Sentence

The command/request sentence is used to order/request someone to do something. The typical of this sentence is the use of command mark (!) which makes it different from the other sentences. Command mark is used in this sentence which can be found in direct speech. When the direct speech is changing to the indirect speech, the comma and quotation mark are missed like the usual.

There are 2 kinds of command/request sentence which have different changes in indirect speech. They are:

a. Positive Command/Request Sentence

The basic feature that we can find in this kind of command/request sentence is the used of infinitive (V1). For this kind, we have to use “to” as conjunctive before the verb.

For example:

Steven asked, “Close the window!” Steven asked me to close the window. b. Negative Command/Request Sentence

The typical of this sentence is the used of word “Don’t” and we have to use “not to” to replace the word “Don’t” before.

For example:

She said, “Don’ttouch me!” She said me not to touch her.

2. Question Sentence

Question sentence is used to ask someone to do something. The typical of this sentence is the use of question mark (?). We have to be careful to change the sentence into indirect speech because there are 2 kinds of question sentence which have different method to change it to be the indirect speech. They are yes/no question and W/H question.

a. Yes/no Question

Yes/no question is the question which needs a short answer. The answer is just yes or no. The typical of this type of question is the using of auxiliary verb in starting the sentence.

When we find this kind of sentence in direct speech, we have to change the auxiliary verb to if/whether. There is no difference in using these words. It is based on the writer. In indirect speech it will be changed into affirmative sentence.

For example:

They asked me, “Do you want to join us to play football?” They asked me if/whether I want to join them to play football. b. W/H Questions

W/H Question is the question which uses word questions. The word questions are what, who, where, why, when, and how. The kind of the question needs long detail answer, sometimes it needs an explanation to answer these questions. The sentence in direct speech and indirect speech will be different. It will change into affirmative. For example:

Andy asked Ted, “Where do you live?” Andy asked Ted where he lived.

2.3.2The Changes of Tenses

As we talk before that indirect speech is the past form of direct speech, so we can conclude that the changes of tenses can be occurred.

Whenever we write it, we have to consider the tenses because it can make a big error when we are not thinking about the tenses.

It will be explained below:

1. Simple Present Tense Simple Past Tense For example:

She said, “My mother cooks well.” (Direct Speech) She said that her mother cooked well. (Indirect Speech)

There is an exception in changing direct speech into indirect speech in simple present tense. When in direct speech we find the general truths or habitual actions, the tense is not changed.

For example:

She says, “The sun rises in east.” (Direct Speech) She said the sun rises in east. (Indirect Speech) 2. Simple Past Tense Past Perfect Tense For example:

They said, “We played a terrific game.” (Direct Speech)

They said that they had played a terrific game. (Direct Speech) 3. Present Perfect Tense Past Perfect Tense

For example:

Clare says, “I have met the little girls today.” (Direct Speech) Clare says that she had met the little girl then. (Indirect Speech)

4. Present Continuous Tense Past Continuous Tense For example:

William says, “He is not inviting our friends to the celebration.” (Direct Speech) William says that he was not inviting our friends to the celebration. (Indirect Speech) 5. Present Perfect Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous Tense For example:

He said, “I have been painting the wall.” (Direct Speech) He said that he had been painting the wall. (Indirect Speech) 6. Simple Future Tense Past Future Tense

For example:

They say, “We will meet after the class.” (Direct Speech) They say that we would meet after the class. (Indirect Speech) 7. Past Continuous Tense Past Perfect Continuous For Example:

He said, “I was not a smart boy.” (Direct Speech)

He said that he had not been being a smart boy. (Indirect Speech)

2.3.3 The Changes of Personal Pronouns

Pronoun is a word that substitutes for noun or noun phrase. It is particular case of a pro-form (www.wikipedia.com). There are so many kinds of pronouns, such as personal pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, and indefinite pronouns.

In the speech we will always see the use of pronouns. The kind of pronouns which is most used is personal pronouns. Originally, there are 3 kinds of personal pronouns, they are: first person (I and we), second person (you), and third person (he,

she, it, and they). Not only as a subject (subject pronouns), the personal pronouns can also uses as object (object pronouns). Subject pronoun is when a person or thing uses as a subject in a sentence or clause and object pronoun is when the person or thing uses as an object in a sentence or clause.

When we talk about indirect speech, we can’t deny the pronouns. The pronouns do not only use in indirect speech but also in direct speech. We can see the used in reporting clause and reported clause in indirect speech. The changes of personal pronouns depend on the use of the pronouns as a subject or object in direct speech which will influence the changes of personal pronouns in indirect speech.

There are some rules in changing the pronouns in indirect speech which will be explained below:

a) The changes of first person (I and We) in reporting clause will be changed appropriate to subject in reported clause.

For examples:

– He said, “I will have a meeting.” (Direct Speech)

He said that he would have a meeting. (Indirect Speech) – They said, “We got a prize.” (Direct Speech)

They said that they had gotten a prize. (Indirect Speech)

b) The second personal pronouns (You) will be changed appropriate to the object in reported speech.

For examples:

– He said to me, “You have to come with me” (Direct Speech) He said to me that I had to come with him. (Indirect Speech) – She said to me, “You can go now.” (Direct Speech)

c) There is no change of third personal pronouns (He, She, It, and They) in indirect speech.

For examples:

– He said, “She is a good lecturer.” (Direct Speech) He said that she was a good lecturer. (Indirect Speech) – They said, “It has 3 tails.” (Direct Speech)

They said that it had 3 tails. (Indirect Speech) – She said, “They have invited us.” (Direct Speech)

She said that they had invited them. (Indirect Speech)

2.3.4The Changes of Adverb (Adverb of Time and Place)

Adverb is used to explain a sentence and make a sentence clearer. There are 4 kinds of adverbs, they are: adverb of time, adverb of place, adverb of frequency, and adverb of manner. We usually see the adverb in a communication.

There are 4 kinds of adverb but only 2 adverbs which have a change in indirect speech. The adverbs are adverb of time and adverb of place. These adverbs in direct speech will be changed in indirect speech.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Now Then

Today That day, The next day, The day after

Tomorrow The following day, The day later

Last … The … before, The previous …

… ago … before, … earlier

Yesterday The day before, The previous day

The day before yesterday Two day before

Here There

This That

These Those

The using in the sentences:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

She says, “I am writing now.” She said that she was writing then.

He says, “She has a class today.” He says that she had a class that day/the next day/the day after.

They say, “We will come to your house tomorrow.”

They say that they would come to my house the following day/the day later.

He says, “I will hike the mountain next week.”

He says that he would hike the mountain the week after/the following week.

month.” month before/the previous month.

She said, “He came to your house 2 days ago.”

She said that he had come to my house 2 days before/2 days earlier.

She said, “I helped my mother yesterday.”

She said that he had helped her mother the day before/the previous day.

They said, “It ripped the day before yesterday.”

They said that it had ripped two days before.

He said, “I have a present for you in my bag here.”

He said that he had a present for me in his bag there.

My mother said, “This is a good day.”

My mother said that that was a good day.

My father said, “These are lovely kittens.”

My father said that those were lovely kittens.

2.4Error Analysis

2.4.1The Difference of Error and Mistake

In learning language especially second language, we will find a problem which also known as error and mistake. Brown (2000) states that in the process of learning especially English, there are 2 terms for distinguishing mistake which is made by student, they are ‘mistake’ and ‘error’. Generally, people think that error and mistake is same, but in fact, they are so different.

Ellis (1985:9) states that errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize target language rules and then reproduce them in their own utterance. They indicate that learners construct their own rules on the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of target language

Error is the fault which is happens in the process of understanding. So, the fault which occurs here is not the technically problem like ‘slip of tongue’ but the fault which describes that a student is not knowing and understanding the patterns in the language yet.

Furthermore, mistake is the fault which makes by student because of the fault hypothesis and the fault in using the knowing systems. It means that the student has known the language well but there is “slip in tongue” factor, random grammar, mistakes in remembering, or physically factors such as: fatigue and uncontrollable emotion.

It is important to know the differences between error and mistake because they have different factors which cause it. Mistake happens because of “error in performance” and error happens because of “error in competence”. So, to prove if a student makes a mistake or an error that is to recheck the mistake with the student which made it. If he can re-correct the found mistake, it means that he made a mistake or “error in performance” but if he cannot find and re-correct the mistake, it means that he made an error or “error in competence”.

2.4.2 Error and Error Analysis

Ellis (1985:9) states that errors are an important source of information about SLA, because they demonstrate conclusively that learners do not simply memorize

target language rules and then reproduce them in their utterances. They indicated that learners construct their own rules in the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language. Error and error analysis can’t be separated because there is no error analysis without the error itself. Error analysis exists because of the error itself, it is the object which will be analyzed.

The procedure for error analysis is spelled out in Corder (1979). It is as follows: A. A corpus of language is selected

This involves deciding on the size of the sample, the medium to the sampled, and the homogeneity of the sample (with regard to the learner’s ages, L1 background, stage of development, etc)

B. The errors in the corpus are identified

Corder (1971) points out the need to distinguish ‘lapses’ (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence) from ‘errors’ (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of lack of competence). He also points out that sentences can be ‘overtly idiosyncratic’ (i.e. they are ill formed in terms of target language rules) and ‘convertly idiosyncratic’ (i.e. sentences that are superficially well formed but when their context of use is examined are clearly ungrammatical)

C. The errors are classified

This involves assigning a grammatical description to each error. D. The errors are explained

In this stage of procedure an attempt is made to identify the psycholinguistic cause of the errors. For examples, an attempt could be made to establish which of the five processes described by Selinker (1972) is responsible for each error.

E. The errors are evaluated

This stage involves assessing the seriousness of each error in order to take principled teaching decisions. Error evaluation is necessary only if the purpose of the error analysis is pedagogic. It is redundant if the error analysis is carried out in order to research SLA.

There are some classifications of error. This classify can explain us about the kinds of error and how to analysis each errors which we will find in the using of a language. Some experts have their own classification which will be explained below: 1. Jack Richards (1974:173)

Jack Richards classifies error into two kinds, they are: A. Interlanguage Errors

The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker (1972). Various alternative terms have been used by different researchers to refer to the same phenomenon; Nemser (1971) refers to approximative systems, and Coder (1971) to idiosyncratic dialects and transitional competence.

These terms reflect two related but different concepts. First, interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his development (i.e. an interlanguage). Second, the term refers to the series of interlocking systems which form what Corder (1967) called the learner’s ‘built -in-syllabus’ (i.e. interlanguage continuum)

Richard (1974:173) says that interlanguage errors are errors caused by the interference of the learner’s mother tongue. The interference means the interference of native language into the second language which means the learning process. The interlanguage errors can be occurred when someone wants to learn a language (second language) and he brings his native language to the language which he is

learning to. Error must be happened because language is not same. There are so many aspects which make a language different from another, one of them is culture. B. Intralingual Errors

Richard (1974:6) says that intralingual errors refers to item produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based on partial exposure to the target language. Intralingual errors occur in the second language, it is the result of the understanding of the learner to the second language.

The error can be faced even in the simple rules such as the differences between the verb inflections in I count, she counts. The error looks simple but it is crucial for a good writing. Intralingual errors can be classified into some errors such as:

 Overgeneralization

Languages have their own rules which make them unique. One rule is used for the specific matter and it can’t be used to the other matters. The overgeneralization is a big mistake to a learner who is learning a language. Jacobvits (in Richards, 1974) defines overgeneralization is the use of previously available strategies in new situations. There are some mistakes which we can face in using a language such as the using of past form in English. Generally, English verb uses –ed to define that it is the past form but in fact, the –ed form is not occurred in some verbs. It may be inferred that the overgeneralization is not suggested.

 Ignorance of Rule Restriction

Overgeneralization and ignorance of rule restriction are similar because they disobey the basic rules in a language. No limitation is the main idea of this type.  Incomplete of Application Rules

These errors reflect the degree of rule acquisition and the ability correct utterance to be produced. The error concerns to the negative and interrogative sentence which centered to the using of auxiliary verbs or the inversion.

 False Concept Hypothesis

These errors are caused by the poor gradation of teaching such the mistakes resulted from a poor rule presentation. For getting a clear explanation we can see that in the using of word “yet”.

– He has arrived the house yet.

The using of “yet” above is false because the word “yet” is occurred in a negative sentence.

2. Dulay and Burt (1973, 1974a)

They identified 4 types of error according to their psycholinguistic origins: A. Interference-like Errors

Those errors that reflect native language structure and are not found in first language acquisition data.

B. First Language Developmental Errors

Those that do not reflect native language structure but are found in first language acquisition data.

C. Ambiguous Errors

Those that can not be categorized as either interference-like or developmental. D. Unique Errors

Those that do not reflect first language structure and also are not found in first language acquisition data.

Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982:138) state that errors are the flawed side of learner speech or writing. They described 4 descriptive taxonomies to analyzed errors. They are:

A. Linguistic Category Taxonomy

Linguistic category taxonomy classifies according to either or both the language component and the particular linguistic constituent the error effects. The language components are phonology, syntax and morphology, semantic and lexicon, and discourse whereas constituents include the elements that comprise each language component.

B. Surface Strategy Taxonomy

Surface strategy taxonomy is the highlights of the way surface structures which are altered. There are some kinds of errors in this kind:

 Omission Errors

Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in well-formed utterance.

 Addition Errors

Addition errors are characterized by the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance. Three types of addition errors are:

– Double markings: dey didn’t ate the meals. – Regularization: goed for went.

– Simple additions: I doesn’t go to school.  Misinformation Errors

Misinformation errors are characterized with the used of the wrong forms of morphemes or structure. The types of this kind are:

– Archi-forms: I come to her house yesterday. – Alternating forms: I gone to her house yesterday.  Misordering Errors

Misordering errors are the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance.

C. Comparative Taxonomy

Classifying the errors based on comparison between the structure of language learners’ errors and the types of construction. The kinds of this taxonomy are: developmental errors, interlingual errors, ambiguous errors and unique errors.

D. Communicative Effect Taxonomy

Deals with the errors from the perspective of the listener or reader. The taxonomy can be classified into: global errors and local errors.

target language rules and then reproduce them in their utterances. They indicated that learners construct their own rules in the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language. Error and error analysis can’t be separated because there is no error analysis without the error itself. Error analysis exists because of the error itself, it is the object which will be analyzed.

The procedure for error analysis is spelled out in Corder (1979). It is as follows: A. A corpus of language is selected

This involves deciding on the size of the sample, the medium to the sampled, and the homogeneity of the sample (with regard to the learner’s ages, L1 background, stage of development, etc)

B. The errors in the corpus are identified

Corder (1971) points out the need to distinguish ‘lapses’ (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of processing limitations rather than lack of competence) from ‘errors’ (i.e. deviant sentences that are the result of lack of competence). He also points out that sentences can be ‘overtly idiosyncratic’ (i.e. they are ill formed in terms of target language rules) and ‘convertly idiosyncratic’ (i.e. sentences that are superficially well formed but when their context of use is examined are clearly ungrammatical)

C. The errors are classified

This involves assigning a grammatical description to each error. D. The errors are explained

In this stage of procedure an attempt is made to identify the psycholinguistic cause of the errors. For examples, an attempt could be made to establish which of the five processes described by Selinker (1972) is responsible for each error.

E. The errors are evaluated

This stage involves assessing the seriousness of each error in order to take principled teaching decisions. Error evaluation is necessary only if the purpose of the error analysis is pedagogic. It is redundant if the error analysis is carried out in order to research SLA.

There are some classifications of error. This classify can explain us about the kinds of error and how to analysis each errors which we will find in the using of a language. Some experts have their own classification which will be explained below:

1. Jack Richards (1974:173)

Jack Richards classifies error into two kinds, they are: A. Interlanguage Errors

The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker (1972). Various alternative terms have been used by different researchers to refer to the same phenomenon; Nemser (1971) refers to approximative systems, and Coder (1971) to idiosyncratic

dialects and transitional competence.

These terms reflect two related but different concepts. First, interlanguage refers to the structured system which the learner constructs at any given stage in his development (i.e. an interlanguage). Second, the term refers to the series of interlocking systems which form what Corder (1967) called the learner’s ‘built -in-syllabus’ (i.e. interlanguage continuum)

Richard (1974:173) says that interlanguage errors are errors caused by the interference of the learner’s mother tongue. The interference means the interference of native language into the second language which means the learning process. The interlanguage errors can be occurred when someone wants to learn a language (second language) and he brings his native language to the language which he is

learning to. Error must be happened because language is not same. There are so many aspects which make a language different from another, one of them is culture. B. Intralingual Errors

Richard (1974:6) says that intralingual errors refers to item produced by the learner which reflect not the structure of the mother tongue, but generalizations based on partial exposure to the target language. Intralingual errors occur in the second language, it is the result of the understanding of the learner to the second language.

The error can be faced even in the simple rules such as the differences between the verb inflections in I count, she counts. The error looks simple but it is crucial for a good writing. Intralingual errors can be classified into some errors such as:

 Overgeneralization

Languages have their own rules which make them unique. One rule is used for the specific matter and it can’t be used to the other matters. The overgeneralization is a big mistake to a learner who is learning a language. Jacobvits (in Richards, 1974) defines overgeneralization is the use of previously available strategies in new situations. There are some mistakes which we can face in using a language such as the using of past form in English. Generally, English verb uses –ed to define that it is the past form but in fact, the –ed form is not occurred in some verbs. It may be inferred that the overgeneralization is not suggested.

 Ignorance of Rule Restriction

Overgeneralization and ignorance of rule restriction are similar because they disobey the basic rules in a language. No limitation is the main idea of this type.  Incomplete of Application Rules

These errors reflect the degree of rule acquisition and the ability correct utterance to be produced. The error concerns to the negative and interrogative sentence which centered to the using of auxiliary verbs or the inversion.

 False Concept Hypothesis

These errors are caused by the poor gradation of teaching such the mistakes resulted from a poor rule presentation. For getting a clear explanation we can see that in the using of word “yet”.

– He has arrived the house yet.

The using of “yet” above is false because the word “yet” is occurred in a negative sentence.

2. Dulay and Burt (1973, 1974a)

They identified 4 types of error according to their psycholinguistic origins: A. Interference-like Errors

Those errors that reflect native language structure and are not found in first language acquisition data.

B. First Language Developmental Errors

Those that do not reflect native language structure but are found in first language acquisition data.

C. Ambiguous Errors

Those that can not be categorized as either interference-like or developmental. D. Unique Errors

Those that do not reflect first language structure and also are not found in first language acquisition data.

Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982:138) state that errors are the flawed side of learner speech or writing. They described 4 descriptive taxonomies to analyzed errors. They are:

A. Linguistic Category Taxonomy

Linguistic category taxonomy classifies according to either or both the language component and the particular linguistic constituent the error effects. The language components are phonology, syntax and morphology, semantic and lexicon, and discourse whereas constituents include the elements that comprise each language component.

B. Surface Strategy Taxonomy

Surface strategy taxonomy is the highlights of the way surface structures which are altered. There are some kinds of errors in this kind:

 Omission Errors

Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in well-formed utterance.

 Addition Errors

Addition errors are characterized by the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance. Three types of addition errors are:

– Double markings: dey didn’t ate the meals. – Regularization: goed for went.

– Simple additions: I doesn’t go to school.  Misinformation Errors

Misinformation errors are characterized with the used of the wrong forms of morphemes or structure. The types of this kind are:

– Archi-forms: I come to her house yesterday. – Alternating forms: I gone to her house yesterday.  Misordering Errors

Misordering errors are the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance.

C. Comparative Taxonomy

Classifying the errors based on comparison between the structure of language learners’ errors and the types of construction. The kinds of this taxonomy are: developmental errors, interlingual errors, ambiguous errors and unique errors.

D. Communicative Effect Taxonomy

Deals with the errors from the perspective of the listener or reader. The taxonomy can be classified into: global errors and local errors.