KORELASI HUKUM ANTARA TUJUAN PENGATURAN

JURNAL HUKUM JUSTITIA FAKULTAS HUKUM UNIVERSITAS ICHSAN GORONTALO

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: Dekan Fakultas Hukum Universitas Ichsan Gorontalo

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JURNAL HUKUM JUSTITIA Jurnal ilmiah yang diterbitkan secara berkala oleh Fakultas Hukum Universitas Ichsan Gorontalo. Terbit tiap bulan Maret dan September, Harga Rp. 50.000 (lima puluh ribu rupiah).

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Jurnal Hukum JUSTITIA Vol. II, No. 2 Maret 2015

E DITORIAL

Pembaca yang budiman, Segala puji bagi Tuhan Yang Maha Esa dan yang telah memberikan kami kekuatan, kesempatan, dan karunia yang begitu besar sehingga penerbitan jurnal hukum “JUSTITIA” Fakultas Hukum Universitas Ichsan Gorontalo. Volume II Nomor 2 Maret 2015 dapat terlaksana dengan baik, merupakan suatu langkah progresif yang digagas oleh Fakultas Hukum Universitas Ichsan Gorontalo untuk melahirkan suatu jurnal ilmiah yang sekaligus dimaksudkan untuk mengisi kekosongan ruang ekspresi ilmiah khususnya isu-isu yang berhubungan dengan perkembangan ilmu hukum secara umum, baik itu dalam aspek perdata, pidana, tata negara, administrasi negara, maupun isu-isu internasional.

Volume II Nomor 2 Maret 2015 menghadirkan beberapa penulis yang memiliki kepakaran di bidang masing-masing. Riyad Febrian Anwar menuangkan gagasannya dengan tulisannya yang berjudul identifying key policies and challenges in deterring arms, drugs, and human trafficking throughout the global maritime reutes , isu ini sangat menarik karena tidak saja berimplikasi terhadap hukum nasional suatu negara, namun juga terkait dengan hukum internasional.

Selanjutnya Ekiyanis Wari Kono, dengan tulisannya yang berjudul efektivitas peran bappeda dalam perencanaan pembangunan di daerah, studi di Kabupaten Pahuwato, dan Mawardi De La Cruz dengan tulisannya yang berjudul pelaksanaan hak anggota dewan perwakilan rakyat daerah dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan daerah di Kota Gorontalo, kedua isu inipun tak kalah menariknya karena isu-isu tersebut berdampak langsung dengan masyarakat. Kemudian Fuad Nur dengan tulisannya yang berjudul pelemahan asas legalitas dengan dianutnya ajaran sifat melawan hukum materil dan adanya hukum yang hidup, Darmawati dan Asriadi Zainuddin dengan tulisannya yang berjudul penerapan hukum pidana terhadap tindak pidana money politic pemilihan umum legislatif di Kota Gorontalo, dan Redwin Darwis dengan tulisannya yang berjudul implementasi pendekatan keadilan restoratif dalam sistem peradilan pidana anak, ketiga isu hukum pidana ini sangat penting diketahui oleh khalayak umum, karena sifatnya yang sangat penting saat ini.

Kemudian isu dalam Volume II Nomor 2 Maret 2015 ditutup oleh gagasan yang dikemukakan oleh Ibnu Munzir dengan tulisannya yang berjudul urgensi perlindungan hukum nasional terhadap Kopi Toraja sebagai produk indikasi asal milik Indonesia, dan Nilawati Adam dengan tulisannya yang berjudul korelasi hukum antara tujuan pengaturan dengan asas praktik dalam undang-undang keperawatan. Semoga berbagai isu-isu ilmu hukum yang tersaji baik itu isu hukum internasional, hukum tata negara, hukum administrasi negara, hukum pidana, hukum, hukum perdata, dan hukum kesehatan dalam Volume kedua ini, akan memberikan sebuah bentuk pencerahan baru yang bermanfaat bagi semua kalangan yang intens dan fokus mengkaji permasalahan yang berhubungan dengan ilmu hukum yang terus berkembang dewasa ini.

Selamat membaca.

Redaksi

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IDENTIFYING KEY POLICIES AND CHALLENGES IN DETERRING ARMS, DRUGS AND HUMAN TRAFFICKING THROUGHOUT THE GLOBAL MARITIME ROUTES.

Riyad Febrian Anwar Exchange Program, Law School of Utrecht University, The Netherlands riyadanwar@gmail.com

Abstrak Transportasi maritim menjadi salah satu sarana terbaik dalam menyelundupkan senjata, obat-obatan dan manusia dengan kelompok kejahatan terorganisir; menyebabkan destabilisasi di dunia. Oleh karena itu, beberapa negara, organisasi regional dan internasional telah secara sepihak atau bersama-sama untuk mengembangkan berbagai sarana tindakan dalam menanggulangi ancaman ini, mulai dari kontrol maritim perbatasan, pencegahan di laut, atau bahkan yang terbaru seperti mekanisme pelacakan. Namun, inovasi terus- menerus dalam operasi kriminal telah mengajarkan kita bahwa hanya dengan merefleksikan tantangan saat ini; pemangku kepentingan dapat efektif menekan dan melawan penjahat di laut. Kata kunci : Transportasi, maritim, kejahatan terorganisir.

I. INTRODUCTION

According to International Maritime Organization (IMO), maritime transport is essential to the world’s economy as over 90% of the world’s trade is carried by sea and it is, by far, the most cost- effective way to move en masse goods and raw materials around the world (https://business

.un.org/en/entities/13). Each year Tankers, bulk carriers, container ships other means of water transports would carry billions of tons of cargo within international maritime trading routes.

However, the large volumes of cargo passing through major ports each year had makes cargo checking for security purposes deemed very difficult in every part of the World. This is compounded by the fact that, with limited resources available for several countries, more attention for security is paid only to the incoming shipments than to the transhipment of cargoes. Indeed these flaws are nothing but to serve as an ideal reasoning on why maritime transport has become the preferred mode for transporting illicit goods.

In recent years, the United Nations (UN) along with its Member States were constantly reminded that organized criminal groups are becoming more transnational, multi-ethnic and poly-crime oriented, as they diversify into a variety of crimes involving licit and illicit commodities traded for profit. More importantly, the UN had oversees on-going trend where sea trafficking has become the quintessential form of criminal activity to smuggle people, drugs and weaponry.

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Looking at the complex nature of organized crimes in high seas, this article will focus in highlighting the major trends on arms, drugs and human trafficking throughout the sea and identifying the legal frameworks and stakeholders to counteract these organized crimes.

Arms Trafficking

No country is unaffected by firearms violence. Each year, firearms are used in more than 245,000 murders worldwide (excluding war-torn countries). The criminal misuse of illicit arms and light weapons poses a wider threat to global security, peace, stability and development. Firearms are easy to conceal and transport, and offer lucrative profits to criminals trafficking in illicit small arms and light weapons.

Small Arms Survey on 2002 finds that small arms are diverted from legal to illicit markets in the following ways (http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2002/en/Small-Ar ms-Survey-2002-Chapter-03-summary-EN.pdf) :

1) Direct government supplies (sponsorship) of arms to non-state actors: Government patronage is the leading source of arms for most non-state actors.

2) Violations of arms embargoes: Preliminary research shows that at least 54 countries have been directly or indirectly linked to transfers of small arms in violation of international

arms embargoes.

3) Violations of end-user undertakings: Typical end-user violations include the re-transfers of small arms shipments in violation of a non-transfer pledge, covering up the identity of the

real end-user, and forging or purchasing false end-user certificates.

4) The ant trade: The ant trade is the process by which arms are bought legally in one country and then smuggled in small increments, sometimes one at a time, into another country. This trade occurs frequently on the US-Mexican border and the Brazilian-Paraguayan border.

5) Theft: from state arsenals or private individuals, including corrupt officials stealing from the stockpiles under their responsibility, is another way legal weapons enter the illicit trade.

This also includes theft as a result of the collapse of a state, such as in Albania or Somalia. One of the most active regions for maritime illicit small arms trafficking is Asia. Patrolling the vast waterways and islands has proved a daunting task for the region’s navies and coastguards. Insurgency groups in north-west India, western Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines use anything from commercial ocean freighters to fishing boats to deliver small arms procurements. Speedboats are frequently used to unload cargo at sea and ferry the shipments across coastguard patrol lines to bring them to shore (http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2002/en/ Small-Arms-Survey-2002-Chapter-03-summary-EN.pdf).

Drugs Trafficking

Trafficking on the sea route is one of the several main ways that criminal groups distribute drugs. It is also one of the oldest. Chinese immigrants became the first known drug smugglers when they began smuggling opium in merchant cargoes and baggage. Since then, drug trafficking by maritime routes has grown in size, scope and sophistication. It is estimated that over nine million shipping containers arrive on large cargo ships each year and another 157,000 arrive on smaller vessels

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in many coastal towns across the US. In international level, the global drug trade generated an estimated US ($321.6 billion in 2003 $321bhttp://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2005 /06/30/un_report_puts_worlds_illicit_drug_trade_at_estimated_321b/). With a world GDP of US$36 trillion in the same year, the illegal drug trade may be estimated as nearly 1% of total global trade. These criminal groups smuggle cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, amphetamine and marijuana.

Illicit drugs often transported throughout the sea passage. Report published by World Drug Reports indicate that cocaine seizures in South America accounted for 59 per cent of the global seizures total for 2008, where cocaine is typically transported from Colombia to Mexico or Central America by sea and then onwards by land to the United States and Canada. Cocaine is trafficked to Europe mostly by sea, often in container shipments (http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/drug-traffi cking/index.html).

Human Trafficking

Human trafficking is a low risk, high-profit business that can occur by air, sea or land, often by complex routes which change rapidly and frequently. The acts was done for financial or material gain, the illegal entry of an individual into a country of which he is neither a citizen nor a permanent resident whom subject to exploitation by means of threat, use of force, deception, coercion, abuse of power or position of vulnerability. The exploitation ranging from being forced as prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.

There are several methods of trafficking people by sea, with boats of all types and sizes being used to commit the crime. In some countries, boats of only a handful of passengers are commonly intercepted, while in other countries, vessels of several hundred people have been used. Generally the choice of vessel will depend on the resources available to migrants to fund their passage, as well as the types of vessels provided by smugglers and the length of the journey. The choice of vessel used also changes according to their availability at a given time and place.

II. MARITIME PROTECTION

Countries around the globe have developed various means of action to tackle these criminal operations, ranging from traditional border control to rather contemporary one such as supervision based tracking system.

Border Control

Border controls are measures taken by a country to monitor or regulate its borders. Border controls are put in place to control both the inflow as well as outflow of people, animals and goods. Specialized government agencies are usually created to perform border controls. Such agencies may perform various functions such as customs, immigration, security, quarantine, beside other functions. Official designations, jurisdictions and command structures of these agencies vary considerably.

Preventing illegal trafficking of weapons, drugs and human by sea requires States to balance their obligations at international law with their legitimate interests in protecting state sovereignty from violations by organised crime groups. Tighten and militarized border controls can rapidly and

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significantly impact illicit goods flows and its routes but on the other hand may paramount the regular cross-border activities of the states, causing loss of economic profits in process. Moreover, merely strengthening border alone is inadequate to address illegal trafficking that is flexible in nature.

Interception

Under the international law of the sea, a coastal State can take action against a foreign vessel engaged in illegal activities within its territorial sea. Action may also be taken against a foreign vessel by a coastal State in its contiguous zone, or through the exercise of the right of hot pursuit (UN Convention on The Law of Sea of 1994 / UNCLOS, Art. 33 & 111). The consent of the flag State to such actions is not required under the applicable provisions of the 1994 the UN Convention on The Law of Sea (UNCLOS). In its contiguous zone, the coastal state can proportionately enforce interception to prevent breaches of its immigration laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea (UNCLOS, Art. 33). These affirmed principles would allow any coastal State to investigate and capture the alleged illegal trafficking within its jurisdiction.

Prosecution

Prosecuting the criminals is essential in order to create deterrence effects and non-repetition of the convicted crime. Keep in mind that prosecution of individuals committing trafficking crime would

be fall on the national criminal justice systems. Therefore, the UN seeks to achieve greater number of convictions achieved globally by the Member States. This means not only that arms, drugs and human trafficking must be a criminal offence in the country where the act is detected, but also that the law must be enforced.

Tracking System

Taking advantage on the Supply Chain Management Tracking System, customers’ may trace down goods origin of manufacture by purchase order number, customized unique number, reporting

the goods to organizations with tracking mandate (e.g. the UN Register on Conventional Arms and INTERPOL) or any means of tracking. This would come in handy to ensuring legality of any export and imported goods passing through country land and sea borders. It would also to help inter-state efforts to investigate possible transfer illicit goods, in this sense the firearms and the unauthorized drugs. Theoretically speaking, it would significantly help international community to differentiate legal and illegal goods.

In practice, Tracking System already implemented on many trade objects (timber, diamonds, firearms, etc.) by the Member States. Its full effectiveness however is questioned. Most of Tracking System around is standalone, and there is no interoperability between the systems in various countries. This creates difficulty and confusion for the external authority in confirming legality of goods.

Other caveat observed that Tracking System is not favoured by some stakeholders States. The Arms Trade Treaty of 2013 is international Treaty regulating records mechanism on export and import

of firearms. The UN General Assembly on 2 April 2013 (71 st Plenary Meeting) adopted the Treaty by a 154-to-3 vote with 23 abstentions. The opposition showed by North Korea, Iran and Syria, noting

themselves as the least transparent major exporters in the World “Small Arms Survey 2011” (http://

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www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2011/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2011-Chapter- 01-summary-EN.pdf) . China and Russia are among the World’s leaders in weapon exports who abstained. While other countries that prone to arms trafficking such as Cuba, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nicaragua, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan also abstained.

Various contentions showed during negotiation process, from how the treaty possibly exempting significant quantities of military equipment from member state control to possibility hampering export and imports of firearms.

III. FIGURES AT PLAY

Whether it is effective or ineffective, all above measures are nothing more than a paper talk without active contributions from various regional and international organizations. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and INTERPOL are among those organizations worthy of honourable mentions as we will identify them below.

United Nations (UN)

The UN organization has many parts and deals with a wide range of activities including humanitarian, environmental, health, development and peacekeeping. The UN also makes an important contribution to assisting the 192 Member States of the United Nations in their efforts to combat organized crime, trafficking related crime and terrorism. At this moment, several International Instruments has been enacted by the UN to help Member States eradicate the illegal trafficking of arms, drugs and human, Inter alia:

1) Arms Trade - Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2001) and its Protocol on Firearms; the UN Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit

Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (2001); International Instrument to Enable States to Identify and Trace, in a Timely and Reliable Manner, Illicit Small Arms and Light Weapons (2005); and Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials (1990).

2) Drug Control - Within a decade of 60’s to 70’s, the UN adopted 2 (two) Treaties, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961 and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances of

1971, These Treaties outline control measures for allowing lawful narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances for medical and scientific purposes while preventing their diversion into black market. The UN went further in 1988 by the creating the Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, this treaty essentially regulates chemicals used in manufacturing drugs and provides additional provisions for other drug related crimes such as money laundering.

3) Human Trafficking - Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2001) and its Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and

Children.

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United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

The UNODC is responsible for the implementation of a number of international conventions mentioned above. Thus, the organization divide its action based on the type of criminal conduct.

a) Human Trafficking - The adoption in 2000 by the United Nations General Assembly of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking In Persons, Especially Women and

Children marked a significant milestone in international efforts to stop the trade in people. As the guardian of the Protocol, the UNODC addresses human trafficking issues through its Global Programme against Trafficking in Persons. A vast majority of States have now signed and ratified the Protocol. But translating it into reality remains problematic as very few criminals are convicted and most victims are probably never identified or assisted.

b) Arms Trafficking – The UN through the UNODC tried assisting Member States in their implementation of the Firearms Protocol in an integrated and coherent manner by providing

assistance for the adoption of the relevant preventative and control measures. The UNODC contributes to the Member States' efforts with evidence-based research, capacity building and legislative assistance, the development of legal and technical tools, and by facilitating international law enforcement and judicial cooperation with the objective to enhance investigation and prosecution of crimes relating to illicit manufacture of and trafficking in firearms including their possible links to organized crime.

c) Drug Trafficking - The sheer volume of people, vehicles, aircraft, rail and vessels crossing international borders contributes to the difficulties for the authorities to detect the

smuggling of drugs and other illicit consignments. A focus of the work of the UNODC is to assist Member States in strengthening border control. Projects include:

• Reinforcing drug control capacities at international airports in each of the five Central Asian states; • Strengthening drug and related crime control measures in selected checkpoints in Kazakhstan and multi-agency border teams in Kyrgyzstan; • Establishment of border liaison offices in six South-East Asian countries; and

• Countermeasures against illicit drug trafficking and cross-border crime along Southern and East African land borders.

INTERPOL

The INTERPOL (International Criminal Police Organization) helps to make the world a safer place by linking together police in almost every country in the world. Police use their databases to

share information, communicate via online system, send “notices” or alerts about criminals, and could

be asked for assistance any time of day or night through our 24-hour command centre. One of INTERPOL role is to identify illegal trafficking trends and criminal organizations operating at the international level. they has a long list of credits for their successful Joint Operations along with UN Member States such as:

 Operation Ice Trail – Operation to target organized crime groups smuggling huge quantities of methamphetamine by courier and/or cargo shipment from Iran via Turkey to destination

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countries in Southeast Asia and the Pacific (INTERPOL Doc. No. COM/FS/2012-02/DCO-

01, page (pp.) 2).  Interpol Integrated Border Management Task Force (IBMTF) on Black Sea – Joint Operation of Interpol and Frontex, the European Union agency for external border security, in an operation to check travel documents used by passengers travelling through the

Romanian port of Constanta, a major port on the Black Sea. The operation succeed in streghtening European Union external border and hold more than more than 38 million travel documents reported as lost or stolen by 166 INTERPOL member countries (http://www.interpol.int/News-and-media/News-media-releases/2013/N20130813).  Operation Lionfish – Operation coordinated by INTERPOL’s Regional Bureau for Central America in San Salvador (El Salvador) with involvement of some 34 countries and territories and also resulted in 142 arrests, the seizure of 15 vessels, eight tonnes of chemical precursors, 42 guns and approximately USD 170,000 in cash (http://www.interpol .int/News-and-media/News-media-releases/2013/PR079).

European Union (EU)

The EU through European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders (FRONTEX) enhances border security through strengthened coordination of EU Member States’ activities and pooling of their resources. A key part of its operational goals is the detection (and interception) of migrants, illicit weapons, drugs and other illicit goods in attempting to cross sea borders irregularly, but it also targets the criminal organizations that facilitate their irregular movement

(http://www.frontex.europa.eu/operations/european-border-guard-teams). Various preventive approach introduced including measures such as the compulsory identity cards, containing biometric data, for non-EEA nationals living in the UK.

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

The ASEAN Member Countries took note that there are nexus between illicit firearms or arms trade towards the existing criminal networks which are involved in people trafficking, illicit drug trafficking, document fraud, money laundering, and other related transnational. Therefore, ASEAN Member Countries adopted a Work Program to Combat Transnational Crime, which among others, includes activities such as information exchange, legislation, law enforcement and institutional building and training.

The 2002 Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime also marks regional awareness on human trafficking by Southeast Asia countries. Bali Process succeed in creating Ad Hoc Group aimed to develop and pursue practical measures to inform future regional cooperation on people smuggling, trafficking in persons and the irregular movement of people.

IV. ONGOING CHALLENGES Insufficient Government Participations

It must be borne in mind that some 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by ocean, making detection of a vessel containing trafficked goods extremely difficult. Therefore, all countries need to

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co-operate one another to initiate measures ranging from transnational distribution of information to joint patrol or interception operation. Unfortunately, some countries still lacked in their commitments and efforts to prevent illegal distribution of arms, human and drugs.

Government inability to track down its manufactured arms whereabouts may lead to illicit transfer of their products overseas, This situation fitly reflected when more than 6,000 illicit small arms and light weapons seized in Mexico and the Philippines where large percentage of weapons in Philippine are of US designed arms (http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/20 13/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2013-Chapter-12-summary-EN.pdf;). At least 60 states made what could reasonably be interpreted as irresponsible small arms shipments to 36 countries during the period 2002 and 2004.

Worst of it, there are few countries who get involved in shipment that is against the international law. For example in the recent years, some governments have covertly shipped tens of thousands of small arms and light weapons to various armed groups in Somalia despite a long-standing UN arms embargo (http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2012/eng/Small- Arms-Survey-2012-Chapter-5-summary-EN.pdf).

Country Limited Budget

Less Economically Developed (LED) countries in particular would often pose this challenge. Limited maritime patrol assets can present a significant challenge for small coastal or island states. Some such countries find it difficult to carry out effective maritime patrols in what may be a vast search and rescue area.

This burden could be eased through increased cooperation from other countries. Such cooperation can manifest in the provision of both human and material resources, such as patrol vessels and helicopters and even personnel for the purposes of carrying out joint patrols. However, developed countries seems reluctant on providing cooperation bearing in mind the detrimental attribute attained by some of these LED countries such as, government mismanagement, corruption, internal conflict, etc.

Criminal Trends and Innovation

With prohibition on illegal shipments enforced, twofold results may be received. First would be decrease on the concerned criminal activities and others might be a change of criminal patterns. Trends or patterns of trafficking tend to change following on restrictive actions taken by countries. This would mean that they are more likely to thrown out the former modus operandi and seeks to create innovations or putting advantage on the latest innovation known. The challenge for international community is that criminals are in a much better position than countries law enforcement to take advantage of many of these innovations.

A particular challenge in addressing trafficking at sea is linking sea transportation detected at sea with the trafficking ‐related crimes. Sample of trafficking trend pattern at sea could be taken from rebel group like The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). LTTE have a highly sophisticated sea transport network. The LTTE has set up at least 12 foreign-based shipping companies, mainly in Southeast Asia, and has a fleet of at least 11 deep-seagoing vessels at its disposal travelling mostly

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under Panamanian, Honduran, or Liberian flags (Jane, 2000). The deception portrayed as 95 per cent of the time, the vessels transport legitimate commercial goods while it is the other 5 per cent of the time that they play a vital role in supplying small arms, ammunition, explosives, and other war-related material to the LTTE (Chalk, Peter. 1999:pp.65-91).

Other innovation on means of transportation that brought change of trends would be ‘evolution of narco- subs’. Cocaine and weed shipments have been entering the United States from Central and South America via a range of methods, with seagoing craft being one of the most popular. First there were fishing boats, then "go-fasts" (speedboats mounted with multiple engines). Once these started succumbing to improved detection, drug cartels developed the semi-submersible "narco-sub" -- which is now making way for the full-scale submarine.

Assorted DEA reports claim that Colombian drug cartels have at least 40 of these custom-built subs, while Mexican cartels have even more (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/high-times/cocaine- submarine_b_4136885.html). These narco-subs can transport thousands of pounds of cargo, leaving endless possibility to alter its function to transport other kinds of illegal goods.

To help level the playing field, international community needs to gradually develop technology specifically designed to meet the needs of law enforcement, which we can only do through public- private partnerships building on our respective strengths and resources. To that extends, international community would be faced challenges to seek on how to assist the Member States that limited financially to follow global trends and innovations.

Corrupt Officials

Even when a country well-determined itself to tackle trafficking crimes, the goal may be obstructed by social problem such as corruption. Region like South-eastern Europe for example had corruption problems directly linked to human trafficking where it could be asserted that “trafficking cannot take place without the involvement of corr upt officials.” (Paco, 2002:pp.9) These corrupt acts range “from passivity (ignoring or tolerating), or actively participating in or even organizing trafficking in human beings, that is, from a violation of duties, to corruption or organized crime”

In many countries, local police officers frequent brothels where trafficked victims are kept as customers (http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0309/feature1/). Visa and immigration officials receive free sexual services in exchange for overlooking fraudulent documents presented by human traffickers (Paco, Supra note 15). It is no surprise that countries accused of high levels of corruption are also those exerting little effort against human trafficking, whereas states low in official corruption mostly strive to combat human trafficking (Paco, Supra note 15). Often the case where official also gets involved in illicit trafficking business while maintaining its working objective. In Egypt, the Egyptian Desert Directorate allegedly had a stake in maintaining the flow of drugs, so that it could continually make successful seizures (Dina Siegel, pp.32).

Corruption also signalled in arms trade. Transparency International find that, a number of Britain’s most lucrative existing and potential markets for arms, including Saudi Arabia, Indonesia and Oman, are among countries where there is “a very high risk” of corruption (http://www.rawstory.com

/rs/2013/01/29/most-Countries-do-little-to-combat-corruption-in-arms-trade-study-finds/). Most of these countries still lack the tools to prevent corruption in the arms trade, this consequently create

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opportunity for arms trafficker to initiate corruption based cooperation to the concerned countries officials.

V. CONCLUSION

We may conclude that the institutions, such as UNODC, EU and INTERPOL have been active and outspoken in fighting these criminal activities. Bear in mind, however, their efforts would be short- lived without countries own self-capability to prevent these smuggled goods from breaching their respective territories. As for now, many countries remain ill-equipped to be able to respond to these crimes at sea. Some of the main problems are related to, inter alia:

- Ineffective border controls; - Absence of any real strategic response or operational focus; - Poor inter-agency performances such as inadequate systems for intelligence gathering,

analysis and its deployment, and reluctance to share information between agencies); - Lack of effective cooperation at national/cross border/regional/international levels;

- Lack of equipment that comply with recent criminal innovation; - Lack of trained staffs and specialists in the currently troubling fields; - High prevalence of corruption in various government sectors; - Limited exposure to modern law enforcement methods such as controlled delivery and

other special investigation techniques.

REFERENCES

Agbu, O. (2003). Corruption and human trafficking: The Nigerian case. West Africa Review, 4(1). Accessed on February 26, 2006. http://www.westafricareview.com/vol4.1/agbu.html Between State and Non- State: Somaliland’s Emerging Security Order, Small Arms Survey 2012 Publication, Accessed at 4-11-2013, http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Year book/2012/eng/Small-Arms-Survey-2012-Chapter-5-summary-EN.pdf;

Captured and Counted; Illicit Weapons in Mexico and Phillipines , Small Arms Survey 2012 Publication, Accessed at 4-11-2013, http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Year book/2013/en/Small-Arms-Survey-2013-Chapter-12-summary-EN.pdf;

Chalk, Peter. 1999. ‘The Tamil Tiger Insurgency in Sri Lanka.’ In Abdel-Fatau Musah and Niobe Thompson, eds. Over a Barrel: Light Weapons & Human Rights in the Commonwealth . New Delhi: Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative.

Cockburn, A. (2003). 21st century slaves. National Geographic Magazine (September). Accessed on February 26, 2006. http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0309/feature1/. Craig Stephens, Yayo Submarine: Life and Death on a Cocaine-Trafficking Submersible, Huffington Post News, Accessed at 4-11-2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/high-times/cocaine-subma rine_b_4136885.html

Dina Siegel, Organized Crime: Cultural, Markets and Policies, Springer Publishers, Utrecht. Drug Trafficking; Fact Sheet , INTERPOL Doc. No. COM/FS/2012-02/DCO-01 Drug trafficking , United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) website, accessed 4-11-2013,

http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/drug-trafficking/index.html

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Drugs worth nearly one billion dollars seized in INTERPOL-led operation across Central America and the Caribbean , INTERPOL News, 2-7-2013, accessed at 4-11-2013, http://www.interpol. int/News-and-media/News-media-releases/2013/PR079

European Border Guard Team , FRONTEX Website, Accessed at 4-11-2013, http://www.frontex.eu ropa.eu/operations/european-border-guard-teams International Maritime Organization: Overview , UN Business, Accessed at 4-11-2013, https://busi ness.un.org/en/entities/13 INTERPOL joins Frontex operation in Romania against Black Sea crime , INTERPOL News, 13-8- 2013, accessed at 4-11-2013, http://www.interpol.int/News-and-media/News-media-releases /2013/N20130813

Jane, 2000, Terrorism & Security Monitor: ‘Sri Lankan guerrillas campaign at sea as well as on land .’United Nations Publication; Larger but Less Known; Authorized Light Weapons Transfer , Small Arms Survey 2011 Publication, Accessed at 5-11-2013, http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2011/en/ Small-Arms-Survey-2011-Chapter-01-summary-EN.pdf

Richard N. Taylor, Most Countries do little to combat corruption in arms trade, study finds, The Guardian News , Accessed 5-11-2013, http://www.rawstory.com/rs/2013/01/29/most-Countries- do-little-to-combat-corruption-in-arms-trade-study-finds/

The Legal-Illicit Link: Global Small Arms Transfers , Small Arms Survey 2002 Publication, Accessed at 4-11-2013, http://www.smallarmssurvey.org/fileadmin/docs/A-Yearbook/2002/en/Small- Arms-Survey-2002-Chapter-03-summary-EN.pdf

UN Convention on The Law of Sea of 1994 (UNCLOS)UN report puts world's illicit drug trade at estimated , The Boston Globe News, Accessed at 4-11-2013, $321bhttp://www.boston.com/ news/world/europe/articles/2005/06/30/un_report_puts_worlds_illicit_drug_trade_at_estimated _321b/

Paco. (2002). Trafficking in human beings and corruption (report on the regional seminar). Program against corruption and organised crime in South Eastern Europe. Economic Crime Division. Portoroz, Slovenia.

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Peran Bappeda

EFEKTIVITAS PERAN BAPPEDA DALAM PERENCANAAN PEMBANGUNAN DI DAERAH (STUDI DI KABUPATEN PAHUWATO)

Ekiyanis Wari Kono Fakultas Hukum Universitas Ichsan Gorontalo

Abstract Regional development is essentially an integral human development and the development of the entire people of Indonesia to achieve national goals as written in the preamble of the Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia Year 1945, which is to protect the entire Indonesian nation and the entire country of Indonesia, promote the general welfare, the intellectual life of the nation, as well as participate in the establishment world order based on freedom, peace and social justice. Keywords: regional development, human development, social justice.

I. PENDAHULUAN

Pembangunan Daerah pada hakikatnya merupakan pembangunan manusia seutuhnya dan pembangunan seluruh masyarakat Indonesia untuk mewujudkan tujuan nasional seperti yang tertulis dalam pembukaan Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 1945, yaitu melindungi segenap bangsa Indonesia dan seluruh tumpah darah Indonesia, memajukan kesejahteraan umum, mencerdaskan kehidupan bangsa, serta ikut melaksanakan ketertiban dunia yang berdasarkan kemerdekaan, perdamaian dan keadilan sosial. Dalam rangka mencapai tujuan diatas pemerintah melakukan pembangunan disegala bidang. Pembangunan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah ini haruslah merata yang berarti dampak pembangunan hams dirasakan oleh semua lapisan masyarakat bukan hanya untuk lapisan tertentu. Pembangunan juga harus seimbang maksudnya pembangunan harus sesuai dengan kemampuan yang dimiliki oleh bangsa dan negara ini. Selain itu pembangunan juga melihat keselarasan dan keserasian antara pembangunan yang dilakukan dengan keadaan dan lingkungan masyarakat yang ada. Jadi pembangunan haruslah merata, seimbang, selaras dan serasi.

Dalam upaya pemerintah melaksanakan pembangunan secara merata, seimbang, selaras dan serasi haruslah mendapat dukungan dan seluruh masyarakat Indoneasia yang merupakan potensi sumber daya manusia yang sangat besar dengan didukung oleh suatu proses perencanaan yang baik oleh badan-badan pemerintah dan badan-badan non pemerintah. Namun pada kenyataannya, pembangunan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah selama orde baru telah melahirkan sentralisasi kekuasaan dimana pemerintah pusat memegang hampir seluruh kendali pemerintahan di daerah. Hal ini dirasa sangat tidak adil bagi pemerintah daerah yang selama ini andilnya sangat besar dalam memberikan dana kepada pemerintah pusat Sementara pemerintah pusat mengembalikan kepada daerah dalam bentuk-bentuk proyek-proyek dan bukan berbentuk dana riil sehingga pemerintah daerah tidak dapat secara independen mengatur prioritas kebutuhan daerahnya.

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Salah satu usaha untuk melakukan pemerataan pembangunan nasional adalah dengan usaha pembangunan diseluruh daerah Indonesia. Berkaitan deugan dengan hal itu dalam UU RI No. 32 tahun 2004 tentang Pemerintah Daerah pasal 150 menegaskan perencanaan pembangunan daerah merupakan bagian integral dan pembangunan nasional diarahkan untuk mengembangkan daerah dan menyesuaikan laju pertumbuhan antar daerah. dalam melakukan perencanaan pembangunan harus disesuaikan dengan prioritas dan potensi daerah yang bersangkutan. Pembangunan daerah bertujuan untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup dan kesejahteraan rakyat di daerah melalui pembangunan yang baik antar bidang maupun antar wilayah yang didukung perencanaan pembangunan daerah yang efektif dan efisien menuju tercapainya kemandirian daerah dan kemajuan yang merata diseluruh tanah air.

Berkaitan dengan perencanaan pembangunan yang sesuai dengan prioritas dan potensi yang dimiliki oleh daerah tersebut maka perlu adanya otonomi daerah. Dalam penyelenggaraan otonomi daerah yang seluas -luasnya maka pemerintah memberikan kewenangan kepada pemerintah kabupaten/kota untuk menyelenggarakan uruasan pemerintahan berdasarkan asas otonomi. Hal tersebut terdapat dalam Pasal 10 ayat (1 dan 2) Undang -Undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004tentang Pemerintahan daerah. Pasal 10 ayat (1) “Pemerintahan daerah menyelenggarakan urusan pemerintahan

yang menjadi kewenangannya, kecuali urusan pemerintahan yang oleh Undang-Undang ini ditentukan menjadi urusan Pemerintah”. Ayat (2) “Dalam menyelenggarakan urusan pemerintahan, yang menjadi kewenangan daerah sebagaimana dimaksud pada ayat (1), pemerintahan daerah menjalankan otonomi

seluas-luasnya untuk mengatur dan mengurus sendiri urusan pemerintahan berdasarkan asas otonomi dan tugas pembantuan”.

Berdasarkan acuan tersebut setiap daerah menyelenggarakan otonomi daerah secara konsisten sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan kapasitas daerah tersebut Bangsa Indonesia adalah negara yang majemuk, satu ukuran belum tentu cocok untuk perencanaan pembangunan seluruh daerah. Dalam proses perencanaan pembangunan inilah peran serta masyarakat sebagai komunitas local harus dilibatkan oleh pemerintah Kabupaten/Kota, karena masyarakatlah yang merasakan langsung dampak dari pembangunan tersebut. DPRD pun harus dilibatkan dalam proses ini, hal ini bertujuan proses desentralisasi berjalan dengan baik dan tidak menjurus kearah sentralisasi. Namun proses desentralisasi yang berjalanpun harus secara baik dan bertanggung jawab, DPRD dalam proses perencanaan pembangunan ini berperan sebagai stake holder yang memiliki kepentingan mendalam untuk mensukseskan otonomi daerah.

Inti konsep pelaksanaan otonomi daerah, adalah upaya memaksimalkan hasil yang akan dicapai sekaligus menghindari kerumitan dan hal-hal yang menghambat pelaksanaan otonomi daerah tersebut. Dengan demikian, tuntutan masyarakat dapat diwujudkan secara nyatra dengan penerapan otonomi daerah luas dan kelangsungan pelayanan umum tidak terabaikan. Di tiap propinsi dibentuk Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah (BAPPEDA), yang merupakan badan staf yang langsung berada dibawah dan bertanggung jawab kepada Gubernur/Kepala Daerah yang bersangkutan. BAPPEDA tersebut berfungsi membantu Gubernur/Kepala Daerah di dalam menentukan kebijakasanaan di bidang perencanaan pembangunan daerah serta pelaksanaannya.

Oleh karena itu Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah sangat berperan dalam manjalankan otonomi daerah. Dalam menjalankan fungsinya sebagai badan perencanaan pembangunan di daerah

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Peran Bappeda

Bappeda dituntut untuk berperan secara aktif, efektif dan efisien dalam meletakan kerangka dasar pembangunan di daerah yang kokoh untuk dapat mewujudkan keberhasilan pembangunan. Maka dapat dikatakan bahwa Bappeda merupakan hal yang sangat berperan penting dalam pembangunan dan hal yang menentukan arah kebijaksanaan pemerintah daerah dalam bidang perencanaan pembangunan di daerah. Hal yang dipaparkan diatas merupakan hal yang semestinya terjadi. Bappeda berperan penting dalam pembangunan. Namun dalam kenyataannya peranan Bappeda kurang begitu teriihat sehingga banyak pembangunan yang semestinya didukung oleh masyarakat malah dalam pelaksanaanya kurang didukung oleh masyarakat. Hal Ini menunjukan tidak semua masyarakat menerima pembangunan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah. Selain itu hal diatas menunjukan bahwa peranan Bappeda yang merencanakan pembangunan di daerah kurang melihat aspirasi yang ada dalam masyarakat.

Melihat hal diatas seharusnya pembangunan bertujuan untuk memajukan kesejahteraan umum, jika pembangunan seperti ini maka hanya sebagian golongan saja yang akan sejahtera sedang yang lain tidak atau mengenyampingkan pendapat sebagian masyarakat. Dalam beberapa bidang pemerintah daerah mengambil contoh dan daerah lain untuk perencanaan pembangunan padahal setiap memiliki sumber daya alam, sumber daya manusia dan budaya yang berbeda sehingga jika diterapkan akan tidak sesuai dengan masyarakat dimana pembangunan dilaksanakan.

Pembangunan yang terjadi sekarang memang sudah tidak bersifat sentralisasi lagi, jadi daerah dapat merasakan segala yang didapatkan oleh daerah tersebut. Namun bukan berarti keadilan telah tercapai, karena yang menikmati pembangunan tersebut hanya segelintir golongan bukan seluruh masyarakat di daerah pembangunan tersebut dilaksanakan. Padahal tujuan pembangunan meningkatkan kesejahteraan seluruh masyarakat Indonesia. DPRD yang menjadi sarana bagi masyarakat untuk menyampaikan aspirasi kurang berperan aktif dalam perencanaan pembangunan didaerah. Karena kurangnya peran aktif DPRD dalam perencanaan pembangunan maka sering kali pembangunan yang dilakukan pemerintah tidak sesuai dengan apa yang diinginkan masyarakat. Oleh karena itu, permasalahan yang hendak diuraikan dalam tulisan ini Faktor-faktor apa yang mempengaruhi efektivitas peran Bappeda dalam perencanaan pembangunan di daerah? dan Upaya apakah yang dilakukan agar peran Bappeda dalam perencanaan pembangunan di daerah dapat efektif?

II. PEMBAHASAN

A. Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Efektivitas Bappeda