A video project to promote nursing students` speaking skill and learner autonomy.

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ABSTRACT

Risa Arroyyani. 2015. A Video Project to Promote Nursing Students' Speaking Skill and Learner Autonomy. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

Speaking is one of the English skills which need to improve regularly. Students need to have more practice when they want to have a good speaking skill, not only in the class but also outside the class. Because of limited time provided in the class to learn language, the students need more tasks to make them have more practice. It can be done through project based learning. The use of project in language learning is an alternative way to support student-centered learning. Project can integrate language skill including the speaking skill in which the students are able to monitor and check their own progress in learning English. Through the project, the students are also given chance to improve themselves outside the class as part of learner-centered or autonomous learner. Autonomous learning seems to be important to own for the students to have successful language learning. To become autonomous, the learners need to learn outside the class to support what they have got in class. The kind of project which can be given outside the class is through video project. This kind of project is hopefully to promote the students' language skill especially speaking and their learner autonomy. In this regard, this study aimed at (a) discovering the effect of video project to improve students' achievement in speaking skill and (b) discovering the effect of video project to promote students' learner autonomy.

I implemented both a quantitative and a qualitative design in this study. This study used statistical t-test to analyze the quantitative data in order to discover the effect of using a video project in improving students' speaking skill based on the score of pretest and posttest of Experimental Group and Control Group. The qualitative data were obtained by using open-ended questionnaire in order to know the effect of using video project in promoting students' learner autonomy. The use of triangulation was strengthened by the interview developed from the result of the questionnaire. The target population of this study was the fourth semester students in nursing department of STIKes Surya Global Yogyakarta in academic year 2014-2015 who were taking English for Medic I. There were 39 students as parts of Experimental Group.

The t-test results labeled equal variances which is assumed gives the t-value of 3.077 and the degree of freedom (df= 81). Ha is accepted if t value> t table. The t table is at 1.989 (3.077 > 1.989) which indicates that the difference is significant because t-test result is higher than t table. The t-test result indicates that the achievement in the speaking skill through video project is improved. Besides, the results of the questionnaire and interview lined five themes. They were students' objectives on learning, students' progress of learning, students' learning strategy, students' learning evaluation, and the role of teacher. The results of those themes describe that the video project can support their learner autonomy The project provides opportunity to the students to become autonomous learner by giving them chance to be aware of their learning objectives, supporting them to achieve some competences related to technology application, English skill, and teamwork coordination, providing them chance to plan their learning strategies,

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making them able in evaluating and monitoring their learning, and able in finding the effective role of teacher when they are learning outside the class.

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ABSTRAK

Risa Arroyyani. 2015. A Video Project to Promote Nursing Students' Speaking Skill and Learner Autonomy. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

Keahlian berbicara merupakan salah satu dari beberapa keahlian dalam bahasa Inggris yang membutuhkan keteraturan untuk meningkatkannya. Mahasiswa diharapkan sering mempraktekkan keahlian tersebut tidak hanya di dalam kelas tetapi juga di luar kelas. Namun dikarenakan keterbatasan waktu perkuliahan bahasa di dalam kelas, mereka perlu untuk mempraktekkannya lebih melalui latihan. Salah satunya melalui pembelajaran berbasis proyek dimana proyek bisa digunakan sebagai sarana yang mendukung mahasiswa untuk mencapai pembelajaran student-centered. Pemberian tugas proyek bisa membantu keahlian berbahasa mereka termasuk keahlian berbisara dimana mereka mampu mengawasi sejauh mana kemajuan mereka dalam mempelajari bahasa Inggris. Melalui tugas proyek, mahasiswa diberi kesempatan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mereka di luar kelas sebagai bagian dari pembelajaran mandiri. Menjadi pembelajar mandiri merupakan sesuatu yang penting agar bisa memperoleh keberhasilan dalam mempelajari bahasa. Mahasiswa perlu untuk belajar di luar kelas untuk mendukung proses belajar mereka di dalam kelas. Salah satu jenis tugas proyek yang bisa diberikan adalah tugas proyek membuat video. Tugas ini diharapkan bisa membantu mahasiswa meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara mereka serta mendukung pembelajaran mandiri mereka. Penelitian ini memiliki tujuan (a) untuk mengetahui pengaruh tugas proyek pembuatan video terhadap peningkatan kemampuan berbicara dan (b) untuk mengetahui pengaruh tugas proyek pembuatan video terhadap pembelajaran mandiri mereka.

Penelitian ini menggunakan analisa metode gabung menggunakan data kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Penelitian ini menggunakan uji t untuk mendapatkan data kuantitatif untuk mengetahui pengaruh tugas proyek pembuatan video dalam meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara mahasiswa berdasarkan nilai pretest dan posttest Kelompok Eksperimen dan Kelompok Kontrol. Peneliti juga menggunakan kuesioner dan interview untuk mendapatkan data kualitatif untuk mengetahui pengaruh tugas proyek pembuatan video dalam meningkatkan pembelajaran mandiri mereka. Populasi penelitian ini adalah mahasiswa keperawatan semester empat di STIKes Surya Global tahun akademik 2014-2015 yang mengikuti mata kuliah English for Medic I. Sample penelitian ini berjumlah 39 mahasiswa sebagai bagian dari Kelompok Eksperimen.

Hasil uji t menunjukkan nilai t sebesar t= 3.077 dan derajat kebebasan sebesar df=81. Hi diterima jika t hitung > t tabel. Nilai t table adalah 1.989 (3.077 > 1.989) yang menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan yang signifikan karena hasil uji t lebih besar dari t table. Hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa terjadi peningkatan kemampuan speaking melalui pemberian tugas proyek pembuatan video. Selain itu, hasil kuesioner dan wawancara menyimpulkan lima tema utama yaitu tujuan pembelajaran siswa, kemajuan pembelajaran siswa, strategi belajar siswa, evaluasi

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belajar siswa, dan peran pengajar. Kelima tema tersebut menunjukkan bahwa tugas proyek pembuatan video dapat mendukung pembelajaran mandiri siswa. Tugas video tersebut memberikan kesempatan bagi mahasiswa menjadi pembelajar mandiri melalui adanya kesempatan untuk memahami tujuan

pembelajaran mereka, dukungan pencapaian beberapa keahlian berkaitan dengan aplikasi teknologi, keahlian berbahasa, dan kerja sama tim, kesempatan untuk menyusun rencana pembelajaran mereka, membuat mereka mampu untuk mengevaluasi pembelajaran mereka, serta kesempatan untuk menentukan peran serta pengajar ketika mereka melakukan pembelajaran di luar kelas.

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A

VIDEO PROJECT TO PROMOTE NURSING STUDENTS’

SPEAKING SKILL AND LEARNER AUTONOMY

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) Degree

in English Language Studies

by Risa Arroyyani Student Number. 126332018

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2015

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DEDICATION PAGE

I dedicate my thesis to

Allah S.W.T

And

My Beloved Parents Wagiran, BA and Suharti

My Lovely Husband Arif Kurniawan My Little Angel Neyra Hayfa Kurniawan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise to Allah S.W.T, The Almighty! Only because of Allah's blessings, I was able to accomplish my thesis. I am also blessed to have people who have supported and facilitated me. My special gratitude goes to my thesis advisor, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. for his patience, guidance, help, suggestions, and support to finish my research work. Without his support and guidance, I would not be able to accomplish my thesis. I am greatly indebted to the all lecturers in English Language Studies for guiding and teaching me during my study in Sanata Dharma University: F.X Mukarto, Ph.D., Dra. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A.(Hons), Ph.D., and Dr. J. Bismoko. I thank them for letting me learn many great things, sharing the knowledge and also suggestions and support during the process of my thesis writing.

I sincerely send my gratefulness to my beloved parents, Wagiran, B.A and Suharti, and my lovely husband, Arif Kurniawan for their prayer, support, advice, patience, hugs, and kisses. Their love, affection, and spirit they always give me make me strong day by day. I am also thankful for having my sister, Rima Alfiani for always supporting and advising me, my little angel, Neyra Hayfa Kurniawan for the smiles and cheerfulness which makes me strong, and for my baby Nafis who always accompanies me since he was in pregnancy. Hopefully, this thesis would be my present for them.

I should be grateful for having my friends in KBI especially Class C community for sharing good moments, support, tears, and laughter during our study. We have learnt many great things from our friendship. Besides, I thank to KBI staff, MbakLely and PakMul and all graduate staff for helping me during my academic time.

Finally, my gratitude also goes to those whom I cannot mention by names. May all of them be blessed with health and happiness in life.

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TITLE PAGE………... i

APPROVAL PAGE ……… ii

DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE………... iii

DEDICATION PAGE………... iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY………... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN UNTUK PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH………... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……… vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS………... viii

LIST OF TABLES………... x

LIST OF FIGURES………... xi

LIST OF APPENDICES……… xii

ABSTRACT……….. xiii

ABSTRAK……… xv

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION………. 1

A. Background……… 1

B. Problem Limitation……… 5

C. Problem Formulation……… 6

D. Research Goals………. 6

E. Benefits of The Study……… 7

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW………. 8

A. Theoretical Review………. 8

1. Project Based Learning……… 8

2. Video Project in Language Learning………... 11

3. Speaking……….. 13

3.1Types of Speaking Performance and Activities……… 14

3.2Micro and Macro Skills in Speaking………. 17

3.3Assessing Speaking……… 19

4. Learning Autonomy……… 22

4.1The Importance of Autonomous Learning……… 23

4.2Characteristics of Autonomous Learners………. 24

4.3Level of Autonomy……….. 25

4.4Teacher's Role in Autonomous Learning………. 27

4.5Strategies to Promote Autonomous Learning……….. 28

4.6Learning Strategies……… 30

5. English for Nursing Students………. 33

B. Review of Related Studies……… 34

C. Theoretical Framework………. 37

D. Hypothesis ……… 42

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……….. 43

A. Research Method………... 43

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C. Research Setting ……….. 46

D. Research Population………. 46

E. Data Gathering Technique and Instruments………... 50

F. The Experiment………. 54

G. Data Analysis………. 58

H. Trustworthiness of the Study………. 59

CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION……… 61

A. Findings………. 61

1. Effect of Video Project to Promote Students' Speaking Skill ………… 62

2. Video Project to Promote Students' Learner Autonomy ….………….. 69

B. Discussion………. 76

1. Experimental Research in the Effectiveness of Video Project to Promote Students‟ Speaking Skill ………. 76

2. Questionnaire and Interview Results on How Video Project Promotes Students‟ Learner Autonomy ………. 79

2.1 Students‟ Objective on Learning……… 80

2.2 Students‟ Progress of Learning……….. 82

2.3 Students‟ Learning Strategies……… 84

2.4 Students‟ Evaluation on Learning………. 87

2.5 Role of Teacher………. 91

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION……… 97

A. CONCLUSION……… 97

B. SUGGESTION……….... 99

BIBLIOGRAPHY……….… 101

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Brown's Micro and Macro Skills of Speaking………. 18

Table 2.2 Description of Language Components by Pandiya ……… 20

Table 2.3 Scale Criteria of Speaking by Pandiya ……… 21

Table 2.4 Theoretical Framework of the Study ……….. 41

Table 3.1 Participants of Pretest ………. 47

Table 3.2 Means and Standard Deviation of Pretests in EF Class ………. 48

Table 3.3 Homogeneity Test ……… 48

Table 3.4 Normality Test of EF Class ………. 49

Table 3.5 Organization on the Individual Questionnaire ………. 52

Table 3.6 Content Coverage of the Individual Questionnaire ………. 52

Table 3.7 Time Table for Data Gathering ……… 54

Table 3.8 Project Description for Experimental Group……… 58

Table 4.1 Means and Standard Deviations of Experimental Group ……… 63

Table 4.2 Means and Standard Deviations of Control Group ………. 63

Table 4.3 Frequencies of Scale Criteria of Speaking of Experimental Group ... 64

Table 4.4 Frequencies of Scale Criteria of Speaking of Control Group ……… 64

Table 4.5 One Sample Kolmogorov Smirnov Test………. 66

Table 4.6 t test Statistics of Experimental Group Pretest and Posttest ……….. 66

Table 4.7 t test Statistics of Control Group Pretest and Posttest ……… 67

Table 4.8 Group Statistics of Control and Experimental Group ……… 68

Table 4.9 Result of Independent Sample t test ……… 68

Table 4.10 Coding and Categorizing of Questionnaire ……… 70

Table 4.11 Coding and Categorizing of Interview ………. 72

Table 4.12 Samples of Students‟ Comments in Questionnaire and Interview… 73 Table 4.13 Interview Summary of Three Respondents ……….. 92

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Research Sequence ………. 45 Figure 4.1 Means Plots on Tests between EG and CG……….. 62

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A. Syllabus of Nursing Study Program Semester Four ……… 106

Appendix B. Speaking Test Items……….. 111

Appendix C. Scoring Rubric of Speaking Test……….. 117

Appendix D. Pretest and Posttest Result………. 120

Appendix E. List of Experimental Group Members and Video Project Link on You Tube………... 129

Appendix F. Questionnaire Construct and Open Ended Questionnaire………. 132

Appendix G. Students' answers in Interview and Questionnaire……… 137

Appendix H. Coding and Categorizing of Questionnaire and Interview……… 173

Appendix I. Output of SPSS Test………. 182

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ABSTRACT

Risa Arroyyani. 2015. A Video Project to Promote Nursing Students' Speaking Skill and Learner Autonomy. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

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making them able in evaluating and monitoring their learning, and able in finding the effective role of teacher when they are learning outside the class.

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ABSTRAK

Risa Arroyyani. 2015. A Video Project to Promote Nursing Students' Speaking Skill and Learner Autonomy. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

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menunjukkan bahwa tugas proyek pembuatan video dapat mendukung pembelajaran mandiri siswa. Tugas video tersebut memberikan kesempatan bagi mahasiswa menjadi pembelajar mandiri melalui adanya kesempatan untuk memahami tujuan pembelajaran mereka, dukungan pencapaian beberapa keahlian berkaitan dengan aplikasi teknologi, keahlian berbahasa, dan kerja sama tim, kesempatan untuk menyusun rencana pembelajaran mereka, membuat mereka mampu untuk mengevaluasi pembelajaran mereka, serta kesempatan untuk menentukan peran serta pengajar ketika mereka melakukan pembelajaran di luar kelas.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides the general explanations of the research. There are research background, problem limitations, research questions, research goals, and benefits of the study.

A. RESEARCH BACKGROUND

English is foreign language which has been taught in many levels of education in Indonesia. The four skills of English named Speaking, Writing, Listening and Reading are all important to improve. In learning language skills, the students need to have more practice. Since it is very limited time learning language in class, they must have more time outside the class to learn language. However, the students need more motivation to learn foreign language out of the learning atmosphere in the classroom. That is related to how autonomous they are in learning language.

The discussion of autonomy has been occurred in some fields, however the topic of autonomy related to language learning has also been discussed in some researches. Autonomy or independence is important in applying student-centered learning and self-assisted language learning. Holec (1981:3) defines autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one‟s learning”. While autonomous learning is based on student-centered in the learning process, it doesn‟t mean that the teacher‟s support and input is not needed (Little, 1991). Autonomous learning is needed by

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all language learner from the beginner to the advance while there must be any different in the media used in the learning process.

Learner autonomy is related to the fact that learning language will be difficult for the students unless they aim to learn outside as well as during class time. For example, when the students want to master speaking skill, it means that they aim to practice outside the class time. It is because the complexity of language which is not enough for the students to learn all they need to in a classroom (Harmer, 2007). In this case, autonomous learning seems to be an important to have by the students when they want to have successful language learning. There are some definitions of learner autonomy, among of them is stated by MacDougall (2008),

“A type of learning which is characterized by personalization, self-directedness and less dependency on the educator for affirmation, and which therefore enhances rather than hinders the capacity for constructive collaborative participation in the workplace (p224).”

By the need of autonomous learning in supporting students mastering language skill, there are many media developed to reach the aims of successful autonomous learning. Technology and multimedia are also developed to support the need of learner autonomy especially in learning language. Some researchers have found the effectiveness of using technology to support learner autonomy in certain skill including speaking. The effort in finding the appropriate materials related to learner autonomy is based on the concept that interest in learner autonomy has increased substantially in the last decade and also that developing learner autonomy does not just involve putting appropriate learning materials in front of a student, but necessitates helping the student develop the skills and mindset that can lead to successful self-guided language study (Jones, 2011).

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Because English is not only learnt by young learner but also by adult, and there are different learners‟ needs each other, the use of technology for promoting learner autonomy is also different. While both young learner and adult learner use the same media, there will be any different in the content and purpose of the use of media, especially when there is any project for the learners to use technology in helping them promoting their autonomous learning. From many benefits of autonomous learning, the teachers then need to promote their students to become autonomous learners. However, it is less effective for the teachers to just tell the students about the benefits of being autonomous learner. They need to provide better course design to help their student to become more independent (Harmer, 2007).

Learner autonomy can be promoted through the use of technology. According to Toyoda (2001), there are three conditions necessary for autonomous learning related to the use of technology as accessible and reliable technology, sufficient computer literacy in students, and good communication with and support from peers. Healey (2002) states that technology provides a wealth of resources and potential, but it is not a solution on its own. It means that although the use of technology is important in language learning, the teacher still plays an essential role and both cannot be substituted. Schwienhorst in Collentine (2011) also outlines three approaches to promoting learner autonomy for CALL researchers and developers. In the individual-cognitive approach, reflective processes are aided through the act of writing (as opposed to speaking). In the social-interactive approach, interactions with peers or native speakers such as in project-based tasks promote autonomy. In the experimental-participatory

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approach, learners are made to be their own agents, and their own actions and choices promote autonomous learning.

Through project-based learning, the students are intended to be able to monitor and check their own progress in learning English then they will be ready to become autonomous learner. Projects can also be called as tasks which integrate language skills works in some activities. Hedge (2000) states that projects are parts of leaner-centered. Meanwhile, Postman and Weingartner in Hedge (2000) claim that the critical content of any learning experience is the method or process through which the learning occurs.

One kind of project that can be used is making video. Video project is known as the project in which the students explore their own creativity and distribute their duties to make video during several weeks. Video production can be used as the media in learning or teaching language (Gardner 1994). By making video, the students can determine their goals in learning language and build their language skills.

There are some studies about the use of video to promote learner autonomy and language proficiency. In the study of Masats, et al (2009) it shows that video production can be used as language learning tools. The learners take responsibility of their own learning through task that is intellectually and emotionally challenging that is through video making. The study of Hafner and Miller (2011) also shows the use of collaborative digital video project to promote learner autonomy in English for Science.

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B. PROBLEM LIMITATION

There are four language skills which are important for adult learners. However, speaking plays an important role for them because when they have good speaking skill, they will be able to have good communication especially when they want to get work abroad or with foreigner. For adult learners, speaking takes the important role because it keeps them in communication as relationship, or negotiations (Hedge 2000). Speaking is one of four skills in English which needs to be improved through some practices. Because spoken language has characteristic of spontaneity in which the planning time for speaking is severely limited, the students need to do more practice to make their speaking more natural (Thornburry, 2005: 2). As the way to have speaking habits, the three stages of learning including presentation, practice, and production (PPP) can also be applied. It is not only good for grammar learning but also appropriate for speaking. The term presentation or modeling is also known as awareness-raising which then leads to production which is also known as autonomy.

In addition, there are also numerous kinds of media which can be used in promoting learner autonomy and speaking skill. The media as part of project-based learning can be created by the students not only to improve their language skill but also to increase their learner autonomy. From many kinds of projects that can be done by the students, this study will only focus more on the use of video project in promoting students‟ English speaking skill and learner autonomy. The researcher also researches English speaking skill of the fourth semester of nursing students in STIKES Surya Global Yogyakarta because the syllabus of the fourth

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semester focuses on speaking more than the syllabus of the other semester which focuses on the other language skills.

C. PROBLEM FORMULATION

This study is conducted to find the answers of the formulated research questions as follows:

1. Is video project effective to promote nursing students‟ speaking skill? 2. How does video project promote learner autonomy of nursing students?

D. RESEARCH GOALS

This study aims to find out whether video project is effective to promote speaking skill of nursing students or not. It means that this study purposes to know how video project can be used as learning tools for nursing students to learn the English subject and how it can help them to be easier in their speaking practice related to English material in class. I also intend to know how video project promotes nursing students‟ learner autonomy. It means that I am going to find out whether making video is suitable for nursing students to make them having characteristics of autonomous learner, for example, knowing their learning objective, having high motivation in learning, choosing and implementing their learning strategies, and being able to monitor their progress through learning. Therefore, the goals of this research are to present the information about the effectiveness of using video project in promoting the students' speaking skill and to display information about the role of video project in students' learner

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autonomy. It is also expected that the information in this research would give a positive contribution for teaching and learning activity in nursing academy.

E. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY

This study is expected to give some benefits to English learning. The results of this study may become valuable information for the teachers, learners, curriculum and material designers and implementers and any parties who concern with the development of English education.

Theoretically, this study might become an additional reference on the literature of English studies in Indonesia context, particularly those concerning the relation of video production and learner autonomy to the language learning achievement. The result of the research which was the relation of video project, learner autonomy, and speaking skill, hopefully can help to improve our understanding on them and how one variable can affect one another.

Practically, the study may contribute to the development of education and language teaching to improve efficiency and productivity. It is hoped to improve the teacher's ability in monitoring students‟ language skill and learner autonomy by the use of video project.

In addition, this study is hopefully beneficial for researchers and further studies, as this research will be likely to lead further researchers to improve, correct, and refine the theoretical foundation used in this study and to contribute any new ideas on the effective teaching of English for nursing students.

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this chapter is to clarify concepts and their interrelation, then use the concepts to answer the research problems theoretically. This chapter starts with the theoretical review, review of related studies and then theoretical framework.

A. LITERATURE REVIEW

This theoretical review would discuss the theories used in this research. Those theories are: Project Based Learning, Video Project in Language Learning, Speaking, Rubrics for Speaking, Learner Autonomy, and English for Nursing Students.

1. Project-Based Learning

In relation to promote autonomous learning, project-based learning is one way to promote the students‟ independence. Project based learning or also known as project-based instruction is “an instructional approach that contextualizes learning by presenting learners with problems to solve or products to develop” (Moss & Van Duzer in Foss, 2006). Beckett (2002) defines project as "a long-term (several weeks) activity”. Project-based instruction allows the teachers to teach four language skills in English while giving both teachers and students freedom in what project they choose and how they carry it out. Project-based learning aims at comprehensible output (Beckett, 2002) which occurs both during the project and as the final product of the project.

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Project-based learning (PBL) is a model of learning that organizes learning activity that shifts away from the usual classroom practices of short, isolated, teacher-centered lessons around projects (Mae, 2006). In PBL, learning activities are formed with long-term, interdisciplinary, student-centered, and integrated with real-world issues and practices. Projects can also be defined as complex tasks. They are based on challenging questions or problem involving students in design, problem-solving, decision making, or investigate activities. Projects give the students chance to work autonomously for some periods of time which culminate in realistic products or presentations (Jones, Rasmussen, & Moffitt, 1997; Thomas, Mergendoller, &Michaelson, 1999).

The learning especially for adult is most effective when it is relevant and meaningful and when it is germane for adult learners‟ needs, life responsibilities, roles and interest (Mackeracher in Almanza, 1997). Because project based learning is an active learning, it is used as a bridge between language study and language use. It places the learners in situations requiring authentic use of language in order to communicate. In team or group, the students have chance to plan, organize, negotiate, make their points, and arrive at a consensus about things they have to be responsible of and how information will be presented. This occurs for all levels of language proficiency, even for learners at the lower ones (Fried-Booth in Almanza, 1997).

In addition, there are some benefits of project based learning according to Almanza (1997) including developing language skills, engaging learners‟ in activities which develop the use of learning strategies such as goal setting,

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planning and self-evaluation, and affective behaviors such as confidence, and risk-taking.

To reach a successful project-based learning, there are some requirements must be applied by the teacher. According to Almanza (1997) the requirements are including: (1) Considering the topic and skills the students intend to focus on in the class as well as the requirements for the course, (2) Giving opportunity to the students to have a voice in identifying the topics, (3) Choosing project that will best meet the teacher‟s instructional goals and demonstrate a student‟s abilities and progress, (4) Providing the projects that challenge learners to stretch beyond what they believe they can do with English, but it should not be difficult to be frustrating or inhibiting, (5) Choosing the projects that are beneficial to the teacher, the students, and outside stakeholders, (6) Because project implementation can be quite complex, it is important to require flexibility, (7) It is important that learners have an opportunity for evaluating their work.

Related to the implementation of project based learning, some steps are necessary to do as parts of planning. A different procedure on planning projects is presented by Stripling, et.al (2009) which provides some steps in planning projects including establishing content and skill goals, develop format for final products, planning the scope of the project, designing instructional activities, and assessing the project design. The careful planned of the project implementation is to clarify student learning goals, final products, timeline, and instructional activities. According to Chard in Mae (2006), there are sample activities of project based learning which can be implemented in learning as field trips, experiments, model building, posters, and the creation of multimedia presentation. By doing the

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projects, the students are hoped to learn with different learning styles to demonstrate their knowledge by means of inquiry.

2. Video Project in Language Learning

A kind of activity in project based learning is by creating multimedia presentation. Video project is part of implementing project based learning related to multimedia or technology. The implementation of video project needs several weeks requiring students‟ self-consideration and team work. Video materials have been employed in language teaching and learning since the early 1980s, when the technology became widely available for non-industrial purposes. It has been developed specifically for the vast quantity of video materials for the use in the foreign language classroom. Advances in digital technology in the 1990s created even more exciting opportunities for using video for language teaching and learning (Vanderplank, 2010). However, video materials have been employed as a “static” resource similar to printed sources because the classroom activities have been mainly centered round viewing and listening to the video, reading subtitles, or teaching the target language culture (Gardner, 1994; Moore, 2006). As the solution, in creating the learning process more dynamic, teacher can involve the students to make video production.

Related to video production, a study by Gardner (1994) offers a frame-work for the video project organization and implementation. He identifies two important stages of the activity, namely deciding the project organization and establishing the project‟s goals. In the project organization, he suggests four possible models namely: (1) all the students in the class participate in one large-scale production; (2) a „project elite‟ coordinates the project and allocates work to

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other members of the class; (3) separate groups of students work on their own small-scale projects; and (4) the project is managed by the whole class which consists of smaller sub-groups responsible for different parts of the project (i.e. writing and editing the script, choosing locations to film, acting etc.).

Regarding the project goals, Gardner advises that they should be focused on the stages of the project implementation (i.e. choosing the topic for the video, deciding how the topic should be approached, identifying the intended audience, and deciding how to present the video), and that the goals must be clear and can be easily understood by the learners.

In giving video project to the students, teachers advisably do not take a full control of the projects making but rather give many things to be determined and decided by the students (Alan & Stoller, 2005). It means that the students need to be active in making decision of what is important or what is not important to do in the process of making the project. Further, the interaction of literacy (language learning), digital literacy (media learning) and content knowledge construction should occur at the three stages of video production project including planning, shooting, and editing.

At the planning stage, learners need to create their storyboards and scripts. The learners should make considerations about what will they talk in the video or kinds of music or sounds needed. At the time of shooting, learners have the opportunity to put into practice about what they have learnt in the lesson. Shooting is not only about capturing a sequential set of events, but also about considering good angle, scene, and many others. At the editing stage, the learners are required to add title, subtitle, transitions, voice, and sound effects.

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In the discussion of video project implementation, the students not only need the skill required in executing the project (for example skill related to technology) but also the basic language skills as required in the school curriculum or in the learning goals. The integration of content and learning skills is an essential component of project-based learning and should be identified in the project outcomes. Students need to learn, practice, apply, and extend those skills as part of the project design. Skill development must follow a coherent continuum of instruction and practice to enable all students to become independent learners (Stripling, et al, 2009).

3. Speaking

Speaking is one of four language skills in which for many students learning to speak fluently in English is a priority. It is because they use speaking skill to keep up rapport in relationship, influence people, and win or lose negotiations as parts of communication (Hedge, 2000:261).

To develop students‟ speaking ability, there are some methods can be applied. Wilson in Harmer (2011) describes the value of planning and rehearsal for speaking success. The students will perform much better if they have the chance to think about what they are going to say and how to say it. It gives them time to think in their heads about how they will speak. In addition, repetition also plays an important role in developing speaking skill. It has many beneficial effects as helping in students‟ memory, and allowing the students to improve on what they did before. However, repetition works better if the students get a chance to analyze what they have already chance to evaluate what they have done. This

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makes their performance second or third time round can be better (Harmer, 2011:346).

The teachers also need to be involved in the speaking activities to encourage the students learn and develop their speaking skill. There are different roles played by the teacher during speaking activities as a prompter, participant, and feedback provider. When the students get lost and cannot think of what to say next or lose the fluency the teachers expect to them, they can leave the students to struggle out of such situations on their own. The teachers can also help them by offering discrete suggestion to stop their sense of frustration. This is what is called by prompter. As a participant, the teachers should be good animators when asking the students to produce language. As a feedback provider, the teachers should make deep consideration about when is the right time to give feedback to their students. It is because over-correction may inhibit them and put them in communicativeness while helpful and gentle correction may get students out of difficult misunderstandings and hesitations (Harmer, 2011).

3.1 Types of Speaking Performance and Speaking Activities

The knowledge of types of speaking is necessarily needed by the teacher in providing the appropriate speaking activities or speaking materials in the classroom. It is needed related to the different purpose for the students learning speaking skill. According to Brown (2001), there are five types of speaking including imitative, intensive, responsive, interactive, and extensive.

In the first type of speaking, imitative, the learners imitate word or phrase or possibly a sentence. It is purposed to focus on some particular elements or

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language form, not to have a meaningful interaction. One of the examples of imitative speaking performance is drilling.

In intensive speaking performance, the learners product short stretches of oral language to demonstrate the competence such as grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological relationship. Meanwhile, in the responsive type of speaking, short replies are the example. By short replies, it is not necessary to extend dialogues because short replies are only formed in the simpler ones as standard greetings, simple request or simple comments.

In interactive speaking performance, it consists of transactional and interpersonal dialogues. The transactional dialogue is carried out to convey or exchange information which is an extended form of responsive language. When in responsive type of speaking the learners do not need to extend dialogues, in transactional type of speaking they need to extend dialogues or conversation. Another form in interactive type of speaking is interpersonal dialogue. Compared to the purpose of transactional language, interpersonal dialogue tends to maintain social relationship better than exchange information. Some elements as register, colloquial language, slang, ellipsis, etc. may involve in a dialogue in this extended form. In the extensive type of speaking performance, there can be in the form of reports, summaries, and speeches which can be planned or impromptu.

Related to speaking performance, when the teacher has recognized the types of speaking performance which can be used in the classroom activities, they also need to choose the right way to promote the students‟ speaking skill. Promoting students‟ speaking skill is needed to support their performance in each type of speaking. Some activities promoting speaking are suggested by Thornbury (2005)

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including discussion and debate, drama, role play, simulation, presentation, classroom conversation and casual chat, outside-class speaking, storytelling, joke, and anecdote. In choosing the right activities to promote speaking skill, the teacher needs to consider the students‟ language proficiency level to make them effectively applied. The examples of activities appropriate to the higher level students are discussion and debate. By discussion, the students talk spontaneously which provokes them to exchange information. By drama, role play, and simulation, the students can activate their imagination. Drama also benefits for pronunciation and general language use (Harmer, 2011:349). In simulation and role play, the students can simulate a real life encounter as if they were doing so in the real world. They can be used to encourage general oral fluency or to train students for specific situations, especially where they are studying English for specific purpose (ESP) (Harmer, 2011:352). Role play also supports the students to be creative and to put themselves in another person‟s place for a while.

Two of the speaking activities mentioned previously are classroom conversation and casual chat. Those activities are almost practiced by the students in the learning process inside the classroom. Both can promote students‟ speaking skill. In casual chat, the students must talk spontaneously, with unplanned communication and it tends to be natural. However, not many students can perform this activity so they can perform a planned conversation called a classroom conversation which can encourage them to speak English. A classroom conversation is usually practiced among the students and the teacher in a formal condition. The students have longer time to think about what they are going to say

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compared to a casual chat which is usually practiced with their close friends and needs short time to prepare what they should talk about.

There are numbers of outside-class speaking activities including tape diaries, video conferencing, and human-computer interaction. Meanwhile, in speaking activity type including storytelling, jokes and anecdote, the students are offered to perform activities which involve them to speak without partner. In addition, jokes and anecdotes are funny rehearsal of speaking.

The students are also provided activity supporting their speaking skill through the use of technology as video. They can record their performance in the form of role-play as the assignment. Banares in Oktaputri (2010:14) states the benefits of recording the students‟ performance as they have more speaking practices, they pay more attention to pronunciation, they will increase their motivation, and they are able to recognize whether their speaking product is good or not. It is supported by Healey in Oktaputri (2012:15) who states that spotting the students‟ own weaknesses through videotape is much easier. It is related to the function of students‟ learning evaluation.

Those activities are able in supporting and promoting the students‟ speaking skill. However, the teacher needs to consider the students‟ language proficiency level and students‟ interest in choosing the right activities to them. A good consideration is necessary to promote each skill in speaking effectively.

3.2 Micro and Macro Skills in Speaking

As discussed previously, some activities are provided to promote students‟ speaking skill. However, discussing the type of skills in speaking is also needed to give the clear description about how to promote the students‟ speaking skill.

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According to Brown (2004:142), micro skills and macro skills of speaking have some differences. The micro skills are skills related to production of the smaller chunks of language units including phonemes, morphemes, words, collocations, and phrasal units. Meanwhile, the macro skills are skills related to the mastery on the larger elements of language units such as fluency, discourse, function, style, cohesion, nonverbal communication, and strategic options.

The following table shows the specific information of micro and macro skills of speaking according to Brown (2004:142-143).

Table 2.1 Brown’s Micro and Macro Skills of Speaking

Micro skills Macro skills

1. Produce differences among English phonemes and allophonic variants.

2. Produce chunks of language of different lengths.

3. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure, and intonation contours.

4. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.

5. Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) to accomplish pragmatic purposes. 6. Produce fluent speech at

different rates of delivery. 7. Monitor one‟s own oral

production and use various strategic devices− pauses, fillers, self- corrections, backtracking− to enhance the clarity of the message.

8. Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs etc.), system (e.g. tense, agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.

9. Produce speech in natural constituents: in appropriate

1. Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals.

2. Use appropriate styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic conventions, conversation rules, floor-keeping and floor-yielding, interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations.

3. Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feelings, new and given information, generalization, and exemplification.

4. Convey facial features, kinesics, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language.

5. Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of

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19 phrases, pause groups breathe groups, and sentence constituents.

10.Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms. 11.Use cohesive devices in spoken

discourse

words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor in understanding you.

Those differences of micro and macro skills of speaking are important since English teacher needs to develop materials based on the right activities to promote the right skill.

3.3 Assessing Speaking

As one of four skills in language, speaking is also assessed to know the students‟ progress during learning process. However, the testing of speaking is commonly seen as a difficult thing since it is not easy to arrange the test which encourages the students to provide an accurate picture of their oral ability. Madsen in Harmer (2011) also states that the testing of speaking is as the most challenging of all language tests to prepare, administer, and score. It is due to some points as the difficulty in establishing criteria to evaluate a speaking test, the situation during the test, and the emotional relationship between the tester and the testee.

To know the students‟ skill of speaking, there are some kinds of evaluation rubric to use. One of recommended rubrics for assessing language is by using CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference). It gives a detailed description of learner level by skill, in a language-neutral format. CEFR has three broad bands. Each band is divided into two. In the A level, the learners are expected to be able to communicate in basic English with help from the listener and to communicate in English within a limited range of contexts. In the B level, they are expected to communicate essential points and ideas in familiar contexts

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and to use English effectively with some fluenc, in a range of contexts. In the C level, they are expected to use English fluently and flexibly in a wide range of contexts and to use English precisely and sensitively in most contexts (from the book of Introductory Guide to the CEFR for English Language Teachers, 2013). However, because the scale criteria of CEFR is globally used not only for speaking but also for other skill as listening and reading, the researcher does not use it in this research.

Thornburry (2005:127-129) claims that there are two main ways to assess speaking. They are holistic scoring and analytic scoring. Holistic scoring uses a single score as the basis of an overall impression, while analytic scoring uses a separate score for different aspect of the task. Each of those has its own advantages where holistic way is quick and suitable for informally assessing progress. Meanwhile, analytic scoring takes longer since it requires the teacher to take a variety of factors into account and is probably fairer and more reliable. The similar ways in assessing speaking are also explained by Underhill in Pandiya (2013) who states that there are two systems/approaches in speaking test, i.e. analytic scoring systems and impressionistic system. The first is scoring the learners' speaking ability by separating the components of speaking skill into sub skills, and the rater scores each component, and then sums the sub scores into final score. The latter is scoring/judging the learners' speaking ability on the basis of the speaking components. Thus, the rater directly comes to a single score without totaling the sub scores such that in the analytic system. Some of the experts called impressionistic system as holistic system/approach in writing assessment.

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This research uses analytic system which is divided into six components to be assessed as fluency, grammatical accuracy, pronunciation of sentences, pronunciation of words and sounds, interactive communication, and vocabulary resources. Here is the complete description of analytic system as proposed by Pandiya (2003:45). For the complete one, see Appendix C.

(1) Description of Language Components

Table 2.2 Description of Language Components by Pandiya (2013)

No Language Components

Description

1. Pronunciation Pronunciation of individual sounds and words, Pronunciation of sentences, the right intonation and stress

2. Grammatical Accuracy

Accurate use of structure, or how the learner gets his/her utterance correct

3. Vocabulary The leaner‟s ability in choosing appropriate words and how to solve the problems when he/she cannot find suitable words by explaining around the word

4. Fluency The ability to keep the conversation going, Read a text smoothly without hesitation, or inappropriate pause, or repeating words/lines

5. Interactive Communication

The ability to get the meaning across the listener

(2) Scale Criteria

Table 2.3 Scale Criteria by Pandiya (2013)

Scal e Proficien cy Categ ory

Description of Criteria

0 10 – 39% Very Poor

Many wrong pronunciation, No mastery of sentence construction, Little knowledge of English words, Dominated by hesitation, Message unclear

1 40 – 50% Poor Frequent incorrect pronunciation, Major problems in structure, Frequent errors of word choice, Frequent hesitation, Disconnected idea

2 60 – 70% Avera

Occasional errors in pronunciation, Several errors in structure, Occasional errors in word choice, Occasional hesitation, Ideas stand but loosely organized

3 75 – 80% Good Some errors in pronunciation, Minor problems in structure, Minor errors in word choice, Minor hesitation, Clear and organized ideas

4 85 –

100%

Very Good

No errors/Minor errors, Demonstrates mastery of structure (few errors), Effective/appropriate word choice, No hesitation, Well organized and clear ideas

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To assess speaking ability, the teacher can use interviews with some techniques as suggested by Cohen (1994) including personal conversation, giving direction, detailed description, picture sequence, topical discourse, and situation. Each technique has its own strength and weakness. Cohen (1994) also suggests multiple measures of speaking ability including (1) Giving a verbal essay (speaking for three minutes on a specified topic), (2) Giving an oral presentation or lecture (differing from the verbal essay in that the respondents is allowed to prepare), (3) Reporting the contents of an article read in the native language, (4) Participating in group discussion on a common and possibly controversial theme, and (5) Taking part in role play.

4. Learner Autonomy

The teacher may provide the right activities and materials in supporting the students‟ speaking skill. They may also take some considerations in choosing the appropriate activities to promote their speaking performance but all depend on their own responsibility in learning speaking or it can also be called as learner autonomy. Learner autonomy is close related to the individual learner‟s acceptance of responsibility for his or her own learning. It means that in autonomy, the learner or student is required to develop his or her own learning and role in the learning process. Because there are some misconceptions about learner autonomy, it is important to find the clearest definition about autonomy. Little (1991) states that autonomy is not only limited to learning without teacher. In autonomy, it does not also mean that the teacher lets the learners do the best they can. He says that autonomy enables learners to determine their objectives,

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define the content and process of their own learning, select their methods and techniques, and monitor and evaluate their progress and achievements.

Meanwhile, Holec (1981) provides definition of learner autonomy as “to take charge of one‟s learning” (including): (1) determining the objectives, (2) defining the contents and progressions, (3) selecting methods and techniques to be used, (4) monitoring the procedure of acquisition properly speaking (rhythm, time, place, etc.), and (5) evaluating what has been acquired. It means that in learner autonomy, the students are expected to be able to select their own method and procedure in the learning process then evaluate it by themselves. Littlewood (1996) also explains that autonomy has two major components, “ability” and “willingness”. Ability includes both knowledge about the various choices offered to the learner and the skills for implementing such choices, whereas “willingness” entailed “motivation and the confidence to take responsibility” for one‟s decisions.

From some of the definitions of autonomy above, it can be concluded that learner autonomy is related to learner‟s responsibility for his or her learning which can enable him or her to determine the learning objectives, process, method, and to evaluate what has been learnt by him or her. To have more understanding about learner autonomy, the following are the concepts of learner autonomy including the importance of autonomous learning, the characteristics of autonomous learner, level of autonomy, teacher‟s roles in autonomous learning, and strategies to promote autonomous learning.

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4.1 The Importance of Autonomous Learning

There are many experts discussing that autonomous learning is important to practice. Cotterall in Ando (1998) states three important reasons for developing learner autonomy: philosophical, pedagogical and practical. The philosophical reason refers to the learners‟ right to make choices about their learning. It means that learners have the right to make choices about their own learning. Helping learners to learning how to make their own choices will prepare them for a changing future. In the pedagogical reason, it is argued that adults will learn more effectively when they are consulted about dimensions such as the pace, sequence, mode of instruction and even the content of what they are studying. This means that learning is more effective when learners are involved in making decisions about the learning process. The practical argument for promoting learner autonomy means that the learners need to be able to learn on their own because they do not always have access to all instructions they need to become proficient. The learners feel more secure when they participate and are involved in the decision-making process.

According to Omaggio as cited in Bayat (1998), autonomy in language learning is important to create good language learners who are aware of their learning styles and strategies and they know how to adapt them for different learning conditions; know about their strengths and weaknesses; and use every opportunity to communicate in the target language. This means that the students who are autonomous are able to know all their needs to reach their target in learning language.

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4.2 Characteristics of Autonomous Learners

Talking about promoting students to become autonomous learners will always be related to the characteristics of autonomous learners the students need to become. There are some characteristics of autonomous learners as some researchers argue. Autonomous learners need to be active to take role in the learning process by finding more learning opportunities for themselves rather than just doing what the teacher asks them to do. Dickinson (1993) provides four characteristics of autonomous learners. First, autonomous learners are able to identify what is being taught in the classroom. The second characteristic is that they are capable to formulate their own learning objectives. It means that they can improve their language skills outside the classroom by reading or watching TV programs in the target language. The third characteristic is that autonomous learners can select and implement the learning strategies which are appropriate for them to improve their language skill. The fourth characteristic is that autonomous learners are able to monitor the effectiveness of the strategies they use and make necessary changes for them.

Meanwhile, there are also other characteristics of autonomous learners provided by some researchers. Charp as cited in Junaina (1994) notes the autonomous learner's characteristics are as active listening and the ability to work independently in the absence of a live instructor become crucial for success. Moreover, there are also other characteristics of autonomous learners suggested by Chan (2001) as: having high motivation, goal oriented, well organized, hard-worker, initiative, enthusiastic about learning, flexible, active, willing to ask questions, making use of every opportunity to improve their learning. While the

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experts have different characteristics of autonomous learners, the characteristics lead the students to be more independent, initiative, and active in their learning process.

4.3 Level of Autonomy

The discussion of level of autonomy is important since autonomy is not an instant process. It requires the clear and ordered steps to be applied by the teachers as teachers‟ consideration when they want their students to become autonomous learners. There are some writers offering levels of autonomy. Nunan (1997:195) provides a model of five levels that are learner action, awareness, involvement, intervention, creation, and transcendance. What are classified by Nunan is involving the dimensions of 'content' and 'process'. For instance, at the awareness level, learners would be 'made aware of the pedagogical goals and content of the materials', 'identify strategy implications of pedagogical tasks', and 'identify their own preferred learning styles/strategies'. In this level of autonomy, the learners are made aware of the pedagogical goals and content of the materials they are using. They identify their own learning strategies. The second level is involvement. In this level, learners are involved in selecting their own goals from a range of alternatives offered. They then make choices among a range of options. The third level is intervention. The learners are involved in modifying and adapting the goals and content of the learning program. In this stage, they modify or adapt the task. The fourth level is creation in which the learners create their own goals and objectives. They now create their own tasks. The fifth level is transcendence. At the transcendence level, learners would 'make links between the content of classroom learning and the world beyond' and 'become teachers and

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researchers'. In this level, the learners go beyond the classroom and make links between the content of classroom learning and the world beyond. The learners at this stage become teachers and researchers.

From those level of learner autonomy, Nunan also provides nine step program to learner autonomy as: (1) make instruction goals clear to learners (2) allow learners to create their own goals, (3) encourage learners to use their second language outside the classroom, (4) raise awareness of learning processes, (5) help learners identify their own preferred styles and strategies, (6) encourage learner choice, (7) allow learners to generate their own tasks, (8) encourage the learners to become teachers, and (9) encourage the learners to become researchers (Nunan, 2003).

On the other hand, Macaro in Benson (2006:3) proposes three-stage model involving 'autonomy of language competence', 'autonomy of language learning competence', and 'autonomy of choice and action'. Scharle&Szabo in Dislen (2000) also provide three stages of process of the development of autonomy in learners as raising awareness, changing attitudes, and transferring roles.

While each of stages is about 'lower' and 'higher' level of autonomy, the relationship between the development of autonomy and language proficiency is still debatable. Kumaravadivelu in Benson (2006:4) argues that it would be a mistake to try to correlate the initial, intermediary, and advanced stages of autonomy with the beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels of language proficiency. It is because the stages of autonomy depend more on linguistic and communicative demands of particular tasks. Therefore, it is still necessary to do

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further research answer the question of how autonomy influences language proficiency as will be done through this study.

4.4 Teacher’s Role in Autonomous Learning

As stated previously, autonomous learning is not merely on learning without teacher. An autonomous learning does not mean that the students are learning without any guidance, that is why it will not be successfully practiced without the active role of teacher. Gremmo and Riley (1995) state that teacher can take the role of counseling in two ways. Firstly, the teacher can assist learners to build set of values, ideas and techniques in the process of language learning. It means that the teacher's role is as counselor who is able to raise the awareness of his or her language learning. Secondly, the teacher can establish and manage the resource center or self-access center. Here the teacher plays role as a staff in self-access centers. The task here provides information and answers related to the available materials in the self-access center. Meanwhile, Tudor as cited in Kocak (2003) suggests that the main role of the teacher in the additional modes of teaching is the supplier of knowledge. It means that the teacher is a source of knowledge who decides on what will be learned and how will that be learned. Another role of teacher is organizing to take in setting up the activities, motivate the students and provide authoritative feedback on students‟ performance.

Additionally, Esch, Schalkwijk, Elsen and Setz (2000) claim that future teachers should be prepared practically and academically in teacher training in order to tackle the influences of autonomous learning on teaching methodology and the role of language teachers and learners. The teachers also need to be able in integrating the principles and phases underlying autonomous learning into their

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teacher training curriculum after long discussions and research. The other role is that the teachers are able to write research program which mainly aims to help them develop specific tasks to train the autonomy of foreign language learners in comprehension, production and (self) assessment.

Related to the teacher‟s role for promoting autonomous learning, Voller in Lai (2010) has suggested three potential roles for teachers who intend to promote learner autonomy in the classroom, namely “facilitator”, “counselor” and “resource”.

4.5 Strategies to Promote Autonomous Learning

Since autonomous learning is important to support learners‟ independence in language learning, promoting autonomous learning will be also important to do by teacher. Benson (2001) states that autonomy can be fostered but it cannot be taught. He also mentions that there is no single best method to foster autonomy because autonomy takes a variety of forms. Teachers should support their learners using different methods. Studying different methods may contribute to fostering learner autonomy in language learning settings. Sinclair (2010) also argues that teachers could not turn their students into autonomous learners, but they could encourage them to reflect on and experiment with their learning processes and strategies, given that the learners would be willing and motivated to take control of their own learning.

Related to promoting autonomous learning, Coterall in Harmer (2011) suggests some characteristics of the language course which aims to promote learner autonomy. First of all, the course is necessary to reflect the goals of learners in its language, tasks, and strategies. The second, it is needed for the

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course to have a link to a simplified model of the language learning process. It means that the students are able to manage their own learning if they have no idea of how learning works by developing an awareness of language-learning theory they are able to adopt learning strategies for themselves. The third is that the course tasks should replicate real-world communicative tasks, and finally, the course should promote reflection on learning. When the course fulfills those kinds of characteristics, it will be helpful for the learners to be autonomous.

Autonomous learning can also be applied by giving project to the students in peer or group. Evatt and Boyle in Stephenson (1998) have shown how students can help each other with their learning through peer work or program. On a capability program, well-managed support groups are particularly important, providing a general culture of interpersonal support where there is no specialist tutorial. In contrast with taught students, autonomous learners have to deal directly with general educational as well as specialist issues. Mixed interest groups can play a positive role in helping students apply some important process as sharing concerns, exploring ideas, exchanging experiences and taking risks.

4.6 Learning Strategies

Since autonomous learning is important in mastering foreign language, it is better to know all supporting successful learning. Learning strategies and styles are two essential things in learning. O‟Malley and Chamot in Saville and Trolke (2006:91) formulate learning strategies used in SLA as metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective. Metacognitive is the strategy in which the learner is able to preview a concept or principle in anticipation of a learning activity, to decide in advance to attend to specific aspects of input, and to rehearse linguistic

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competence which will be required for an upcoming language task. In metacognitive strategy, the learner is doing self-monitoring of progress by him or herself. Cognitive is when the learner repeats after the language model, translate from L1, remembers a new word in L2 by relating it to one that sounds the same in L1 or by creating vivid images, and guessing meanings of new material through inferencing. The social/affective strategy is when the learner seeks opportunities to interact with native speakers, works cooperatively with peers to obtain feedback or pool information, asks questions to obtain clarification, and requests repetition, explanation, or examples.

Those three kinds of strategies are different in the way of process. The metacognitive strategy is that the learner attempts to regulate language learning by planning and monitoring; the cognitive strategy makes use of direct analysis or synthesis of linguistic material; and social/affective strategy involves interaction with others. In addition, Hedge (2000:78) also states that metacognitive strategy involve planning for learning, thinking about learning and how to make it effective, self-monitoring during learning, and evaluation of how successful learning has been after working on language in some way. For cognitive strategy, she gives characteristics of processing information during learning; and for socio-affective strategies, she argues that those strategies provide opportunities for learners to practice. Hedge also adds the fourth strategy named communication strategy (2000). This strategy includes the use of gesture, mime, synonyms, paraphrases, and cognate words from the learners‟ first language to make them understand and to maintain a conversation. Communication strategy is used to despite the gaps in their knowledge of the second language.

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Meanwhile, Oxford in Richards and Renandya (2002:127) promotes some factors influencing L2 student‟s choice of learning strategies. They are motivation, career/academic specialization, sex, cultural background, nature of task, age, and stage of language learning. Language learning style is also identified as another key determiner of L2 strategy choice. The students with an analytic learning style will have different strategies from those with a global style or visual oriented style.

In relation of speaking skill, Harmer (2011:345-347) suggests some ways of strategies which can be applied by the learners including preparation, the value of repetition, big groups and small groups, and mandatory participation. In preparation, the foreign language speakers need to spend some time to prepare what they are going to say by rehearsing (in their head). It can make them more fluent and avoid getting panic. Wilson in Harmer (2011) also describes that planning and rehearsal are beneficial for speaking success and the students will perform much better if they have chance to think about what they are going to say and how to say it.

Related to repetition, it has many beneficial effects as allowing students to improve on what they did before. Each new encounter with a word or phrase helps to fix it in the students‟ memory. Each rehearsal gives them more confidence. However, repetition only works better if the students get a chance to analyze what they have already done. This analysis may come from fellow students or from the teacher.

The students can also involve themselves in smaller group when they find themselves difficult to talk in front of a big group. In smaller group, it makes sure

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that the students get chances to speak and interact in order to practice their speaking skill. Related to mandatory participation, this strategy can help student learning speaking because in group, they are given time special time to speak for some minutes about certain topic then taking turn to other member. While this demands the students‟ confidence in speaking spontaneously, it can be used as strategy in learning speaking.

In addition, Leaver, et al. in Diyanti (2012:23) list several strategies for developing speaking skill as speaking a lot, using new structures and terminology in several contexts, reading voraciously, and practicing native-like pronunciation. The learners can also learn a lot from their interaction with classmates and teachers, making conversations and getting peer feedback. The teachers‟ assistance with relevant guidance by always assisting and facilitating the learners with adequate and relevant learning resources and activities are also beneficial for promoting their speaking skill.

Meanwhile, related to own learning, Wenden in Benson (2001) classifies the strategies used by adult foreign language learners including: (1) knowing what language and language learning involves, (2) planning the content and methods of learning, and (3) self-evaluation of progress, and the learning experience.

5. English for Nursing Students

English for nursing students is a part of English for Specific Purpose. According to Dudley and Evans (1997), ESP has absolute characteristics and variable characteristics. The absolute characteristics of ESP are: (1) ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners, (2) ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves, and (3) ESP is centered on

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the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse, and genre. Meanwhile, the variable characteristics of ESP are: (1) ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines, (2) ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English,(3) ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either for tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level, (4) ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students, (5) Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems.

From those characteristics, it is clearly known the definition of ESP. English for nursing is a kind of ESP which focuses on nursing study program. It is then known as English for Nursing Purpose (ENP). ENP is needed to answer the demands of medical institutions which must produce professional nurse who are not only able in their field but also in communicating using English. English abilities exchange of information and communication with the physicians and the patients which are related to proper diagnoses and care. Nurse education faces several dilemmas and challenges in related to discipline-specific language learning and pedagogy (Kimball in Yu, 2003). At the work place, nurses are always with reading and following doctors' orders, entering records, writing nursing notes, and many others. By having an adequate skill in English communication, nurses can better address their patients' needs with the effective communication, especially when they are working in international hospital with international patients or in abroad. That is why ENP is important to learn by all nursing students.

(1)

184

39 2.00 17.00 10.3590 3.96357

39 8.00 20.00 15.0769 3.19032

39 Experiment Pre Test

Experiment Post Test Valid N (list wise)

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Dev iat ion

Descriptive Stati stics

44 2 18 10.80 3.849

44 8 18 12.98 3.023

44 Contrrol Pre Test

Control Post Test Valid N (list wise)

(2)

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APPENDIX J

SCREENSHOT OF VIDEO DISPLAY ON YOU TUBE

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(3)

(4)

187

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

(5)

(6)

A video project to promote nursing students` speaking skill and learner autonomy.

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

A

VIDEO PROJECT TO PROMOTE NURSING STUDENTS’

SPEAKING SKILL AND LEARNER AUTONOMY

A THESIS

DEDICATION PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF APPENDICES

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

184

185

APPENDIX J

SCREENSHOT OF VIDEO DISPLAY ON YOU TUBE

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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A video project to promote nursing students` speaking skill and learner autonomy.

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