07 MODUL Level 3 MODEL PEMBELAJARAN

SERI PENGEMBANGAN
DIRI

PUSAT PENGEMBANGAN TENAGA KEPENDIDIKAN
BADAN PENGEMBANGAN SUMBER DAYA MANUSIA PENDIDIKAN DAN PENJAMINAN MUTU PENDIDIKAN
KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN NASIONAL
EDISI 1 TAHUN 2011

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BAHAN PEMBELAJARAN UTAMA
PENGEMBANGAN KEPROFESIAN BERKELANJUTAN TINGKAT 3 UNTUK
KEPALA SEKOLAH DASAR

PENGEMBANGAN MODEL
PEMBELAJARAN

2

KATA PENGANTAR

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DAFTAR I
................................................................................................ 1
KATA PENGANTAR......................................................................I
DAFTAR ISI...............................................................................II
GAMBARAN UMUM BAHAN PEMBELAJARAN UTAMA (BPU)............V
PENJELASAN UMUM MODEL PEMBELAJARAN...............................VI
KEGIATAN IN SERVICE LEARNING 1.............................................1
Pengantar...................................................................................................................... 1
Hasil yang diharapkan................................................................................................... 1
Organisasi Pembelajaran............................................................................................... 1
TOPIK 1. ADAPTASI/MODIFIKASI MODEL PEMBELAJARAN..............................2
SUB-TOPIK 1.1.MODEL-MODEL PEMBELAJARAN...............................................2
Kegiatan 1. Berpikir Reflektif........................................................................................2
Kegiatan 2. Studi Kasus................................................................................................. 2
Kegiatan 3. Berpikir Kritis tentang Pendekatan, Strategi, Metode, Taktik, Teknik,
dan Model Pembelajaran............................................................................................... 3
Kegiatan 4. Analisis dan Pembuatan RPP...................................................................19
Sub-Topik 1.2. Pemanfaatan Teknologi Informasi Dan Komunikasi Untuk

Meningkatkan Kualitas Proses Pembelajaran....................................................34
Kegiatan 1. Berpikir Reflektif......................................................................................34
Kegiatan 2. Berpikir Kritis tentang Cakupan dan Manfaat Teknologi Informasi dan
Komunikasi dalam Pembelajaran.................................................................................35
Kegiatan 3. Berpikir Kritis tentang Faktor Pendukung dan Penghambat Penggunaan
TIK di Sekolah............................................................................................................. 42
Kegiatan 4. Studi Kasus tentang Penggunaan Media Cetak, Radio dan Televisi.........45
Kegiatan 5. Berpikir Kritis tentang Penggunaan Komputer dan Internet...................46
Kegiatan 6. Pemetaan Pemanfaatan TIK dalam Pembelajaran....................................51
Sub-Topik 1.3. Pemanfaatan Sumberdaya Sekolah Dan Masyarakat Sebagai
Sumber Belajar...................................................................................................52
Kegiatan 1. Berpikir Reflektif......................................................................................52
Kegiatan 2 Berpikir Kritis............................................................................................53
Kegiatan 3. Studi Kasus............................................................................................... 61
Sub Topik 1.4. PENGELOLAAN PEMBELAJARAN...............................................63
Kegiatan 1. Berpikir Reflektif......................................................................................63
Kegiatan 2. Berpikir Kritis...........................................................................................64
Kegiatan 3. Studi Kasus............................................................................................... 80
TOPIK 2. DISEMINASI MODEL PEMBELAJARAN...............................................83
Sub-Topik .2.1. Model Dan Strategi Diseminasi..................................................83

Kegiatan .1 Berpikir Reflektif......................................................................................83
Kegiatan 2. Berpikir Kritis........................................................................................... 84

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Sub-Topik 2.2. Keterampilan Fasilitasi/Mentoring.............................................97
Kegiatan 1 Berpikir Reflektif.......................................................................................97
Kegiatan 2. Berpikir Kritis Keterampilan Fasilitasi/Mentoring....................................98
Kegiatan 3. Bekerja Mandiri......................................................................................109
Sub-Topik 2.3.Penulisan Bahan Diseminasi......................................................110
Kegiatan 1. Curah Pendapat......................................................................................110
Kegiatan 2. Berpikir Reflektif....................................................................................111
Kegiatan 3 Bekerja Mandiri......................................................................................116
Rencana Tindak Lanjut – PENGEMBANGAN MODEL PEMBELAJARAN...........117
REFLEKSI PEMBELAJARAN IN SERVICE LEARNING 1...................................118
KESIMPULAN.................................................................................................... 120

KEGIATAN ON THE JOB LEARNING........................................121
Pengantar.................................................................................................................. 121
Hasil yang diharapkan............................................................................................... 121

Organisasi Pembelajaran........................................................................................... 121
Topik 1. Adaptasi/Modifkasi Model Pembelajaran...........................................122
Sub-Topik 1.1.Model Pembelajaran...................................................................122
Sub-Topik 1.2 Pemanfaatan TIK........................................................................122
Sub-Topik 1.3. Pemanfaatan sumberdaya sekolah dan masyarakat sebagai
sumber belajar.................................................................................................. 122
Sub - Topik 1.4. Pengelolaan Pembelajaran......................................................124
TOPIK 2 . DESIMINASI MODEL PEMBELAJARAN............................................124
SUB-TOPIK : 2.3. Penulisan bahan desiminasi.................................................124
REFLEKSI PEMBELAJARAN ON THE JOB LEARNING.....................................126
KESIMPULAN.................................................................................................... 128

KEGIATAN IN-SERVICE LEARNING 2.........................................129
Pengantar................................................................................................................... 129
Hasil yang diharapkan............................................................................................... 129
Organisasi Pembelajaran........................................................................................... 129
REFLEKSI KEGIATAN IN SERVICE LEARNING-2.............................................131
KESIMPULAN.................................................................................................... 133

DAFTAR PUSTAKA..................................................................134

Y
Catatan:
 Kegiatan direncanakan dengan menggunakan asumsi pembelajaran secara
mandiri. Jika memang harus dibuat dua versi (mandiri dan terbimbimbing) maka

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setiap kegiatan dapat ditambahkan dengan kata “diskusi kelompok untuk” di
depan kata “berpikir”.
 Diskusi kelompok dapat dilaksanakan dengan berbagai macam teknik dan taktik
seperti yang dicontohkan pada Sub-Topik 1 Kegiatan 9.
 Jika penggunaan video pada beberapa kegiatan tidak disetujui maka tayangan
tersebut akan diganti dengan narasi.
 Artikel masih belum berbasis sumber ilmiah jadi masih perlu disempurnakan.

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GAMBARAN UMUM BAHAN PEMBELAJARAN UTAMA (BPU)
Bahan Pembelajaran Utama (BPU) adalah salah satu bagian dari serangkaian Unit
Pembelajaran

dalam

membentuk

Program

Pengembangan

Keprofesian

Berkelanjutan (PKB) Kepala Sekolah. Program ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan
kompetensi kepala sekolah di bidang-bidang utama dari tugas seorang kepala
sekolah. Secara keseluruhan, ada sebelas Unit Pembelajaran Utama.
Setiap BPU terdiri dari tiga tahap. Tahap pertama adalah tahap lokakarya dimana
peserta bertatap muka dengan fasilitator (In Service Learning 1 atau disingkat IN-1).
Disini para kepala sekolah peserta PKB datang untuk belajar bersama melakukan
kegiatan awal, dan diperkenalkan kepada Bahan Pembelajaran Utama, dan diberi
informasi-informasi penting sehingga mereka siap untuk melakukan sendiri
komponen belajar di tempat kerja (On-The Job Learning atau disingkat ON). Tahap

ON adalah tahap belajar di tempat kerja. Pada tahap On ini setiap kepala sekolah
menerapkan apa yang mereka sudah pelajari dari IN-1 dan melakukan kegiatan
belajar mandiri lebih lanjut. Pada tahap ini para kepala sekolah juga melakukan
pekerjaan-pekerjaan yang menunjukkan bahwa mereka telah mencapai kompetensi
yang diminta dan ini ditunjukkan melalui tugas penilaian (Tugas Penilaian Utama)
yang otentik, dan berdasarkan pekerjaan, yang secara langsung terkait dengan hasil
Belajar BPU

ini. Tahap terakhir adalah dimana peserta (para kepala sekolah)

datang dan bertemu lagi untuk bersama-sama mengikuti tahap Inservice Learning-2
atau disingkat IN-2, di mana mereka dapat melakukan beberapa pembelajaran lebih
lanjut, berbagi hasil latihan mereka, serta meninjau hasil yang sudah mereka capai
selama fase On-The-Job Learning dan mendiskusikan isu-isu yang ada dengan para
peserta lainnya..

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PENJELASAN UMUM MODEL PEMBELAJARAN
Pengantar

Kualitas pembelajaran yang terjadi di sekolah merupakan pusat perhatian dalam
kegiatan pendidikan. Dalam rangka meningkatkan kualitas pembelajaran di sekolah,
seorang kepala sekolah harus memiliki dimensi kompetensi manajerial terkait
dengan kemampuan mengelola: (2.4) Mengelola perubahan dan pengembangan
sekolah/madrasah menuju organisasi pembelajar yang efektif (2.5) Menciptakan
budaya dan iklim sekolah/madrasah yang kondusif dan inovatif bagi pembelajaran
peserta didik, (2.7)

Mengelola sarana dan prasarana sekolah/madrasah dalam

rangka pendayagunaan secara optimal, (2.8) Mengelola hubungan sekolah atau
madrasah dan masyarakat dalam rangka dukungan, ide, sumber belajar, dan
pembiayaan sekolah/madrasah, (2.10) Mengelola pengembangan kurikulum dan
kegiatan pembelajaran sesuai dengan arah dan tujuan pendidikan nasional. (2.15)
Memanfaatkan kemajuan teknologi informasi bagi peningkatan pembelajaran dan
manajemen sekolah/madrasah..
Keenam kompetensi tersebut penting dimiliki oleh seorang kepala sekolah, agar
seorang kepala sekolah dalam melaksanakan tugas pokok dan fungsinya dapat
memberdayakan semua komponen sekolah, terutama dalam memberikan layanan
pembelajaran secara optimal untuk meningkatkan kualitas proses dan hasil belajar

peserta didik.
Melalui topik yang akan dipelajari dalam bahan pembelajaran utama ini, Saudara
akan diajak untuk memahami lebih lanjut tentang bagaimana Kepala Sekolah
mampu mengembangkan kompetensi manajerial yang dimiliki secara optimal dan
maksimal, sekaligus mampu meningkatkan kualitas kinerja sekolah dimana Saudara
bertugas dalam rangka pencapaian kualitas pendidikan secara umum.
Kegiatan mempelajari bahan pembelajaran utama ini dapat Saudara lakukan melalui
kegiatan belajar mandiri, diskusi, simulasi, brainstorming, studi kasus, penilaian
kinerja, problem solving, dan praktik. Kegiatan pembelajaran ini dilaksanakan
melalui program belajar mandiri dalam tiga kegiatan utama yaitu In-service Learning
1 (IN-1), On the Job Learning (ON) dan Inservice Learning 2 (IN-2). Pada tahap INvi

1, Saudara akan mendapatkan gambaran dan bekal pemahaman yang cukup terkait
dengan keenam kompetensi tersebut di atas.
Pada tahap ON Saudara mendapat kesempatan untuk melakukan praktik langsung
di sekolah tempat Saudara bertugas atau di sekolah lain. Pada tahap IN-2 Saudara
diharuskan memberikan laporan proses dan hasil kegiatan selama ON, yang dapat
dijadikan sebagai dasar dalam mengevaluasi dan menyempurnakan layanan
pembelajaran di tempat Saudara bertugas.
Target Kompetensi

Menunjukkan keahlian dalam mendesiminasikan kemampuan mengadaptasi/
memodifikasi model pembelajaran yang memanfaatkan sumberdaya sekolah dan
masyarakat secara optimal seiring kemajuan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi.
Hasil Yang Diharapkan
Setelah mempelajari Bahan Pembelajaran Utama ini, diharapkan kepala sekolah
telah mampu
1. Mengadaptasi/memodifikasi

model

pembelajaran

yang

memanfaatkan

sumberdaya sekolah dan masyarakat secara optimal seiring kemajuan teknologi
informasi dan komunikasi
2. Mendesiminasikan

kemampuan

mengadaptasi/

memodifikasi

model

pembelajaran.
Organisasi Pembelajaran (Kegiatan Pembelajaran/Lingkup Pembelajaran)
Bahan pembelajaran utama ini dapat digunakan kepala sekolah untuk mengikuti
PKB sebagai acuan dalam mengembangkan model-model pembelajaran yang
memanfaatkan sumber daya sekolah dan masyarakat seoptimal mungkin seiring dan
sejalan dengan kemajuan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi.
Pada pembelajaran ini saudara diharapkan dapat meningkatkan kompetensi dalam
mengadaptasi/memodifikasi model pembelajaran yang memanfaatkan sumberdaya
sekolah dan masyarakat secara optimal seiring kemajuan teknologi informasi dan
komunikasi dan mampu mendesiminasikan kemampuan tersebut kepada para

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pendidik dan tenaga kependidikan, maupun kepada para pihak yang memerlukan
layanan pengembangan model-model pembelajaran.
Isi Bahan Pembelajaran
No
1

Topik

In-1

On

In-2

Adaptasi/

 Model pembelajaran

6

30

1

Modifikasi

 Penggunaan teknologi informasi dan
komunikasi
untuk
meningkatkan
kualitas proses pembelajaran
 Pemanfaatan sumberdaya sekolah
dan masyarakat sebagai sumber
belajar.
 Pengorganisasi pembelajaran

7

30

1

3

15

1

3

30

1

Desiminasi

 Model dan Strategi Desiminasi

3

Model

 Keterampilan fasilitasi/mentoring

3

Pembelajaran

 Penulisan bahan desiminasi

3

15

1

Model
Pembelajaran

2

Fokus Topik

Strategi Pembelajaran
Kegiatan Pembelajaran

In-1

Curah Pendapat



In- 2


Berpikir reflektif

√



Identifikasi

√

Pendampingan/ mentoring
Tugas Mandiri

√

Mengamati dan menganalisis tayangan

√

Rencana Tindak Lanjut

√

ON

√















Tagihan
Untuk membantu Saudara menguasai kompetensi mengadaptasi/memodifikasi
model pembelajaran yang memanfaatkan sumber daya sekolah dan masyarakat
seiring dengan kemajuan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi, Saudara harus
menyelesaikan seluruh tugas yang disiapkan pada kegiatan demi kegiatan secara
berurutan. Tugas yang harus Saudara kerjakan seluruhnya sebanyak 2 topik. Di
bawah ini adalah gambaran tentang tugas-tugas yang harus Saudara lakukan.

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Secara lebih rinci tugas-tugas ini akan dijelaskan pada kegiatan pembelajaran
masing-masing topik. Adapun tugas-tugas yang dimaksud adalah sebagai berikut:
1.

Hasil (Model) Adaptasi/Modifikasi Model Pembelajaran
a. Rancangan model pembelajaran.
b. Rancangan model penggunaan ICT dalam pembelajaran
c. Rancangan model penggunaan sumber daya sekolah dan masyarakat dalam
pembelajaran
d. Rancangan pengelolaan pembelajaran

2.

Model Deseminasi Adaptasi Model Pembelajaran

Refleksi Pembelajaran
Di dalam Bahan Pembelajaran Utama ini terdapat tiga tugas refleksi (Refleksi
Pembelajaran); yang dapat Saudara temukan di akhir dari setiap tahap Bahan
Pembelajaran

Utama

tersebut.

Saudara

harus

melengkapi

tugas

Refleksi

Pembelajaran tersebut di akhir In Service Learning 1 (IN-1), setelah menyelesaikan
kegiatan on the job learning (ON), dan setelah menyelesaikan kegiatan in Service
Learning 2 (IN-2).

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KEGIATAN IN SERVICE LEARNING 1

Pengantar
Pada kegiatan in service learning 1 ini Saudara dapat menggali berbagai
pengetahuan dan wawasan tentang mendiseminasikan kemampuan mengadaptasi/
memodifikasi model pembelajaran, penggunaan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi
untuk meningkatkan kualitas proses pembelajaran, pemanfaatan sumberdaya
sekolah dan masyarakat sebagai sumber belajar. pengorganisasi pembelajaran.
Untuk membantu

Saudara

dalam memahami BPU Pengembangan

Model

Pembelajaran dibagi ke dalam 2 topik dan 7 sub-topik di atas, maka pada kegiatan
IN-1 dikembangkan berbagai kegiatan pembelajaran seperti berfikir reflektif, berpikir
kritis, studi kasus, diskusi, melihat tayangan video dll. Agar kegiatan tersebut dapat
dilaksanakan pastikan Saudara memahami semua uraian kegiatan berikut ini:
Hasil yang diharapkan
Setelah mempelajari Bahan Pembelajaran Utama ini, diharapkan kepala sekolah
telah mampu mengadaptasi/memodifikasi model pembelajaran yang memanfaatkan
sumberdaya sekolah dan masyarakat secara optimal seiring kemajuan teknologi
informasi dan komunikasi

Organisasi Pembelajaran
Kegiatan pembelajaran pada BPU Pengembangan Model Pembelajaran topik 1.
Model Pembelajaran ini dirinci menjadi 4 sub-topik, topik 2 terdiri dari 3 sub-topik.
Pada setiap sub-topik terdiri dari beberapa strategi kegiatan yang diharapkan
membantu Saudara dalam memahami materi pembelajaran secara lebih efektif dan
efisien.

1

TOPIK 1. ADAPTASI/MODIFIKASI MODEL PEMBELAJARAN
WAKTU : 19 Jam Pelajaran
SUB-TOPIK 1.1.MODEL-MODEL PEMBELAJARAN
Waktu : 6 Jam Pelajaran
Kegiatan 1. Berpikir Reflektif
Durasi

: 1 JP (45 menit)

Media

: Kertas

A4,

pena,

dan

buku-buku

referensi

tentang

model

pembelajaran
Deskripsi
Pada tahap awal dalam mempelajari Sub-Topik tentang Model-Model Pembelajaran,
Saudara sebaiknya menjawab beberapa pertanyaan berikut ini:
1. Apa yang Saudara perlukan untuk dapat menjadi pemimpin pembelajaran di
sekolah yang sedang dipimpin?
2. Apakah kualitas pembelajaran di sekolah yang Saudara pimpin masih dapat
ditingkatkan kualitasnya? Bagaimana caranya?
Pertanyaan tersebut dapat dijawab dengan menggunakan narasi, tabel, grafik,
maupun peta pikiran dalam kertas kosong yang Saudara siapkan sebelumnya.
Walaupun tidak ada fasilitator/mentor yang akan mengevaluasi, namun ada baiknya
Saudara menjawab dengan sungguh-sungguh dengan menggunakan pengetahuan
yang diperoleh melalui pengalaman maupun referensi yang pernah diperoleh
sebelumnya. Kesungguhan Saudara akan mempermudah penyelesaian tugas-tugas
pada kegiatan selanjutnya sehubungan dengan fungsi refleksi sebagai landasan
proses pembelajaran untuk kepala sekolah dengan kompetensi level/ tingkat 3
Kegiatan 2. Studi Kasus
Durasi

: 2 JP (90 menit)

Media

: Video Model Pembelajaran

Deskripsi
Saudara diminta untuk memberi tanda pada model-model pembelajaran yang
seringkali Saudara lakukan jika sedang mengajar.
Brainstorming
Critiquing
Discussion
Guided practise

2

Debates
Field study
Inquiry
Mentoring

Lecturing
Peer tutoring
Role-playing
Coaching
Journaling
Questioning

Problem-solving
Conferencing
Dialogue
Group work
Modelling
Think pair share

Berdasarkan pada jawaban secara individual, diskusikan beberapa pertanyaan
berikut ini:
1. Model apa yang paling umum digunakan?
2. Mengapa model tersebut yang paling umum digunakan?
3. Seberapa efektif model tersebut dapat digunakan untuk meningkatkan kualitas
pembelajaran.
Setelah diskusi selesai, Saudara akan melihat beberapa tayangan pembelajaran.
Amati tayangan tersebut untuk menjawab pertanyaan berikut ini:
1. Apa pendekatan, strategi, metode, taktik, teknik, dan model pembelajaran yang
digunakan oleh guru tersebut?
2. Berdasarkan pada pengalaman Saudara, apa perbedaan dengan pendekatan,
strategi, metode, taktik, teknik, dan model pembelajaran apa yang biasanya
digunakan?
Jawaban pertanyaan tidak perlu dituliskan secara individual melainkan cukup
dengan melakukan brainstorming atau diskusi dalam kelompok besar.

Kegiatan 3. Berpikir Kritis tentang Pendekatan, Strategi, Metode, Taktik,
Teknik, dan Model Pembelajaran
Durasi

: 1 JP (45 menit ()

Media

: Kotak Informasi 1. Pendekatan Pembelajaran

Deskripsi
Saudara dipersilakan membaca informasi yang disampaikan dalam kotak di bawah
ini.
Kotak Informasi 1. Pendekatan, Strategi, Metode, Taktik, Teknik, dan Model
Pembelajaran
Through the years, the number of approaches to instruction, and the specific
strategies within them, has greatly expanded as we have learned more about
how people learn and different learning styles. In this chapter, we address

3

some of the broader cat- egories of approaches to instruction, from the traditional

use of direct

(transmission/transference)

instruction to

guided

instruction and authentic (transformational) instruction and, finally, individualized instruction (which may include a combina- tion of approaches).
Direct instruction has historically been the most preva- lent approach to
instruction within many schools. Direct instruction—the transference of ideas and
skills from teacher to student—is

often exemplified

by the lecture

method.

Johann Freidrich Herbart (1776-1841) codified the method into five discrete
steps of instruction still used today: (1) preparation or motivation of students for
the information about to be transferred; (2) presentation or summary of what
this information to be transferred is; (3) association of thisnew information to the
knowledge assumed previously known by the students;
ideas, rules,

principles

to be learned

(4) generalization of

through this instruc- tion; and (5)

application of these ideas to specific in- stances (Ornstein and Hunkins 1998).
In a lecture or recitation, the teacher addresses a group of students with a
prepared script of informa- tion to be transferred. This is typically a passive form
of learning by the students. The teacher transmits the information and the
student receives it. Because of the lack of interaction between the teacher and
students, lectures are regarded as one of the more economical forms of teaching
and knowledge trans- fer. Lectures require only one teacher and can in- clude
an audience

of students

numbering several hundred. The onus is on the

students to absorb what the teacher is transmitting.
Direct instruction can also be an effective means of transferring great quantities
of information, which the students will process on their own at a later time. A
properly structured lecture can highlight the im- portant aspects of a topic and
help the students make the necessary connections to frame the topic within their
own schemas. It is important to note, however, that lectures are not typically
contextualized or per- sonalized, but are purposefully general in nature. They are
not designed for one specific audience other than that they may be tailored to a
certain level of understanding of the topic and may be framed within a series of
lectures related

to one another. A lecture is designed

to fit the instructor’s

perspective of ap- propriate structure and organization of ideas, not that of each
of the students. Within a lecture, there is little to no opportunity for questioning
of the teacher or for pauses to process certain concepts. The pace and direction
4

are controlled by the teacher.
The direct instruction approach also includes strategies that

are

less formal

than the lecture model. For instance, direct instruction is often used when
introducing new material and ideas to students. It may be utilized as a method
for one particular por- tion of a given lesson or unit. This is what many refer
to as the “teacher talk” part of a lesson. It is often declarative or procedural
in nature. The teacher, standing before the class, introduces a new idea by
telling the students about the idea and re- lated information, connecting it to
what they already know or have learned, helping them frame their ideas and
giving them instructions about how they will proceed with their learning. This
teacher talk or pre- sentation

strategy differs from the traditional lec- ture

model in that the teacher is connecting the information transferred directly to
the experiences of the students. With traditional direct instruction, the teacher
is not expecting the students to create anything new other than to be adapting
their own schemas to this new information.
As an example of the presentation strategy, imagine a fifth grade social studies
lesson introducing the concept of global exploration. A teacher may intro- duce
the concept by talking to the students about different

explorations they may

have been involved in personally—exploring a museum or their back- yards, for
example. They might then connect these new ideas to what was most recently
taught within this subject, possibly the study of “the old world.” The teacher
would then connect this idea of explor- ing to discovering new territories. The
class might then review various places throughout the world that have been
explored and by whom. With this type of instruction, the teacher determines
which explorers and explorations are important by including them in the talk.
This form of instruction can be personal- ized for the students in that it is
tailored to what they have been learning and their personal frames of reference,
but it is still essentially a teacher-centered strategy with little activity by the
students. This is a presentation of information to be transferred from teacher
to student.
A variation on this strategy is the teacher proceeding from the talking or telling
part of a lesson to a demonstration of the way something works. This, very
much like the master and apprentice model, is the teacher showing the students
how to do some- thing. In the context of school, it may be demon- strating an
5

experiment or showing how to add mixed numbers. The students watch the
demonstration and may participate in a question
they are not personally

and answer session, but

manipulating anything. They are experiencing the

“doing” vicariously. The learning is a transmission of procedures and knowledge as opposed to students learning through their own firsthand experience
and involvement.
In both of these forms of direct instruction it is accepted that some form of
student independent prac- tice for reinforcement of the new information will be
included.

This practice

could include traditional means such as completing

worksheets or workbook pages, but may also include more authentic forms of
using the knowledge just acquired. The idea is to process the information that
was transmitted so that it can be replicated and recalled as necessary.
Direct instruction plays an important role in many classrooms,
introduce new concepts

and procedures and to broadcast

helping

to

information to a

group of students. It is geared for a whole group, not spe- cifically to individual
learners. It does not take into consideration those who may already know the
in- formation, or those who will not be able to learn in this manner. It is expected
that some will gain some reinforcement from the teaching and others will need
extra assistance. Some refer to this as “teaching to the middle.” In addition, it
is not designed to allow for the creative or critical thinking necessary for conceptual change. For that, there are other approaches that will be discussed later
in this chapter.
While direct instruction is a teacher-centered approach, guided instruction asks
both the teacher and student to take an active role in the learning process. The
teacher is still for the most part in control of the teaching, while the student
participates as the teacher leads. With di- rect instruction students are asked to
process much of the learning on their own. In guided instruction the teacher
scaffolds the learning to the students’ levels, supporting and guiding them to higher
levels.
One dominant form of guided instruction is discussion—similar to the Socratic
dialogues. Rather than one student being the focus of the dialogic pro- cess, a
class or small group works its way through ideas. The teacher may present an
issue or concept for discussion and then systematically guide the stu- dents to
new views or concepts.
6

As the students

are guided,

they adapt

this new

information into their schemas of what they have previously understood.
Guided instruction can also be used with a small group or groups of students in
exploring new con- cepts. Again, the teacher is still dominant, but the students
may attempt various approaches to a task with the teacher helping them to
analyze why they are doing what they are doing and to recognize why that
approach may or may not be working. One ex- ample would be in an inquiry
science class where students are exploring the principles of bridge build- ing. The
teacher will set the stage with the materials, ask each student to think about
what they already know about the concepts, experiences, and knowl- edge
they may have of bridges, and then talk them through what is happening as they
try different ap- proaches. In this situation, the teacher guides the stu- dent by
establishing the experience and helping to provide direction and make analytical
connections— but it is the students who are making the choices within their
own exploration.
Guided instruction has become very popular in reading instruction. Recognizing
that students learning to develop the skills associated with reading do so at an
independent rate, teachers can help by guiding this process, tailoring it to the
students’ levels. They work with small groups of students on specific skills or concepts, helping to scaffold their learning, supporting them by supplying them with
words they do not know, and selecting works that are within their skill range. The
support of the teacher and fellow students helps the students move ahead in
their skill attainment.
Like direct instruction, guided instruction involves some form of practice of the
acquired knowledge. This practice is often group practice, where students work
together

through problems

or ideas, discussing why certain strategies and

responses are appropriate. This guided group practice could then, as with
direct in- struction, be followed with independent practice.
Guided instruction can take multiple forms within the classroom. It can be small
group work, individu- alized work, or function as a whole class activity. The key is
that the teacher guides the learners to higher levels by acknowledging what
they already know, supporting their individual learning levels and styles, and
designing instruction to meet these demands.

In that the instruction is still

dominated and controlled by the teacher, it is still considered to be teachercentered, but with much student participation and activity. Given that it is still
7

teacher-centered, the instruction may not reflect what is considered an
authentic approach to teaching. Authentic approaches to teaching are explored
in the next entry.
An overview of “authentic instruction” in education can be divided into three
categories: school organiza- tion to support authentic instruction, classroom organization and teaching methods to actualize authentic instruction, and authentic
assessment to ascertain what students learned from authentic instruction.
Before detailing each of these three categories, it is important to first define key
terms—in

this case, what exactly might be labeled “authentic” and “in-

authentic” in terms of instructing students.
Proponents of “authentic instruction” seek to make schools a place where
children learn more naturalis- tically, countering what some claim as the more
per- vasive school practice of students memorizing de-contextualized facts
and engaging in practices that are meaningless outside of school.
With younger children, this approach might include teachers providing students
with objects and other materials to manipulate, as well as facilitating the social
situations in which students interact with these materials and each other. This
approach would seek to encourage a young child’s natural curiosity and social
development. At the secondary

level, au- thentic

instruction might

involve

students working on world- or work-related projects, applying knowl- edge and
skills towards a usable end. Such an ap- proach to instruction might spark or
sustain a student’s interest or intelligence, combine multiple disciplines,
increase a student’s

or

sense of self as a change agent outside of the school

arena.
In defining authentic instruction, it is also important to note what “inauthentic”
instruction might look like. Proponents of authentic instruction might make the
claim that the way schools have been tradi- tionally

organized

has been

incompatible with real life. For example, schools have historically divided
curriculum into discrete subject areas, whereas out- side of school one must apply
knowledge

from mul- tiple disciplines simultaneously. Teachers have also

traditionally measured

what

students

have learned through tests; yet one

rarely takes a test once they leave school.
In summary, inauthentic instruction would organize learning around

traditional

school goals—ascertaining content area facts and skills measured through exami8

nation. In contrast, proponents of authentic instruc- tion would organize schools
and classrooms around real-world tasks and the interests of students.
However, it is also important to note that within the larger authentic instruction
philosophy of teach- ers preparing students to exist more fully in the real world,
there are wide-ranging perspectives as to what the goals of authentic instruction
should be. Some approaches to authentic instruction focus more on developing
a sense of community, caring, and ethics; others

on

service learning

and

community action; while still others are more explicitly geared toward learning for
the workplace.
There are a variety of ways that schools around the world have been organized
to support authentic instruc- tion at both the elementary and secondary levels.
One of the earliest iterations of authentic instruction in formalized schooling is
the “Montessori Method” developed by Maria Montessori, who opened
first “Child

House”

school

in Italy in 1907.

her

Montessori schools are for

preschool and elementary school children, and operate under the as- sumption
that teachers should help students discover and develop their unique and
individual talents.
The Montessori philosophy claims that what chil- dren need to develop is the
ability to think and reason humanely rather than the capacity to memorize facts.
To this end, Montessori schools are structured to more authentically match the
world of a child’s developing imagination rather than false impositions from the
adult world. Someone observing a Montessori class- room might witness children
walking around freely, choosing objects to work with, and learning by doing in the
physical world. Teachers employ an integrated approach to the curriculum, and
call students together for “lessons” based on actual student need rather than a
preset bell schedule. In approaching Montessori in- struction, teachers focus on
individual children, and seek to motivate students to love learning rather than
achieve a grade.

The

overall

school

environment is set up for focused

discovery.
American schools that have organized around simi- lar philosophies have been
greatly influenced

by the writings of John Dewey and the “constructivist”

movement in education (1902; 1938). The constructivist philosophy directly
ties together ex- perience and education, positing that learning is a mental
construction where one builds on prior and current knowledge to develop new
9

knowledge. Dewey believed that “thinking is doing,” and many child-centered
schools

throughout America are or- ganized so that children can work with

materials and inquire how things can be created in the world. This type of school
organization embodies

the authentic ways that children might learn and do

outside of school. More recent theorists on learning, like Howard Gardner
(1983), have illustrated how this constructivist approach to learning is consistent
with brain research and the development of an individual’s multiple intelligences.
Some schools, such as The Key School in Indianapolis, Indiana, have organized
their entire curriculum around students discovering and developing their multiple
intelligences through pur- suing theme-based projects.
At the secondary level, in concert with efforts since the 1980s to break down large
comprehensive schools into smaller, themed schools, there has been a movement to make learning more authentic. To this end, a variety

of ways to

reorganize secondary schools has emerged. For example, some schools (like
Cen- tral Park East Secondary School [CPESS] of Sizer’s Coalition of Essential
Schools in New York [CES]) have reorganized time to support authentic instruction. CPESS has students engage in areas of learning for

“blocks”

of time

rather than discrete 40–50 minute periods. The idea is that block scheduling
allows for in-depth inquiry and sustained efforts to- wards a goal, and thus, is
more in line with how one would operate in the world. This allows teachers to
focus on students’ intellectual and social develop- ment, as well as on embedding
“habits of mind”

in inquiry into subject matter. At CPESS, student learn- ing

culminates in a Senior Institute where students graduate
elaborate

high school via an

portfolio pro- cess. CES schools emphasize depth over coverage,

theorizing that such attentive inquiry is more authen- tic and lifelike.
A related structure

that has emerged to assist secondary schools in making

learning more authentic involves students

in community-related experiences

from brief “job shadows” to extended internships, apprenticeships, and service
learning. Under this model,

used by schools such as The Met

Providence, Rhode Island, in-school experiences are combined

School in
with out-of-

school work and connections to the community. Within this type of school
organi- zation, students may be in school three days a week or less; and when
they are in school, you are apt to find them working independently or in oneon-one consultation with an adult/teacher.
10

As previously stated, learning that is organized around authentic instruction may
not take place in traditional classroom settings, or may do so for only part of the
student’s educational experience. In instances where teachers and students
interact in more traditional classroom settings, there are a variety of ways that
teachers may approach instruction to make it more authentic.
One

umbrella

approach to authentic

instruction is Project Based Learning

(PBL). Teachers using a PBL approach to instruction might teach thematically
(e.g., a science teacher might use the theme of “Connect- edness” for a
particular unit). During the unit, the teacher would mix direct instruction with
student inquiry, gradually moving from the former to the lat- ter. Using the
example of the field of science and the theme of Connectedness, students over
time would choose a question

or area to investigate

(e.g., How do

city

population shifts impact air quality?). Stu- dents would then do more in-depth
independent re- search into their area of inquiry, using skills and scientific
thinking emphasized and modeled by the teacher. The project may culminate
in different lev- els of “authenticity”: (1) Students may present what they learned
and concluded to their peers; (2) Stu- dents may present what they learned and
concluded to government officials, environmentalists, or in some other
forum;

and (3) Students

may use what they learned

public

to try to impact

environmental policy and practice. Also, students might use multiple meth- ods in
presenting what they ultimately learned (or did), drawing from their multiple
intelligences.
It also is possible to use a modified version of authentic instruction on a smaller
scale, for example, for individual lessons rather than whole units. A math teacher
might present the class with a real-world problem that can only be solved
through the use of algebra. Then, students may work individually or in groups to
solve the problem, applying the math skills they have learned. However, what
happens with the end product from that lesson impacts how authentic the
instruction is. If the students

then hand in their materials

to the teacher,

receive a grade, and move on to the next topic the next day, some would say
that this is more problem-based learning than au- thentic instruction. If, however,
students continue to use algebraic skills to explore real-world local or glo- bal
issues and solutions, then the instruction can be considered more authentic.
Teachers using authentic instruction in the class- room might view their role as
11

more of a coach, fa- cilitator, or guide. The student is no longer learning the
material to impress the teacher; the teacher is helping the student inquire and learn
for particular purposes that have real-life applications. In actualiz- ing this role,
teachers might have individual confer- ences with students, develop individual
learning plans in consultation with parents, serve as a sounding board for ideas,
as an advisor, and as a general re- source. The teacher also might become a
liaison with the

community, arranging

internships and

service- learning

opportunities.
One issue that arises for teachers using authentic instruction is assessment.
Once teachers move away from multiple-choice tests and summative essays to
inquiry projects set in “the real world,” questions of quality emerge. How do you
ensure that the students are learning? Issues of authentic assessment are discussed next.
In contrast with traditional measures of assessments (multiple-choice tests or
essay exams), authentic as- sessments in schools seek to model the way individuals might be assessed outside of school. Rather than taking a timed test, a
student being assessed authen- tically might have several weeks to explore a
topic, cull together what they learned, and present their work by a deadline.
The presentation could be in written form, in a mixed-media portfolio, or through
a multimedia exhibition, or some combination of all three.
Although these forms of exhibiting knowledge maybe more

authentic

than

a

test, even within these modes of instruction teachers need to assess students.
Whether this is done by grades or through narra- tives, projects, and
presentations, there is still a need for some standard of judgment so that students,
teach- ers, and parents can know what constitutes good work, and so that
other institutions can know what an individual student has achieved.
One common way to lay out authentic assessment criteria for authentic tasks is
through the use of ru- brics. Through a rating system or scoring tool, ru- brics
communicate expected quality of work in different performance skills related
to a task. Ide- ally, what makes rubrics authentic is that they are performancebased, as it is performance on tasks (rather than ability to take tests—which is
only one type of task) that students will more often be evalu- ated on in their
lives outside of school. When a teacher uses a rubric to evaluate products of
authen- tic instruction, expectations are clearly printed
12

for all to see (e.g.,

“Exceeds Expectations,” “Meets Ex- pectations,” “Approaches Expectations,”
“Is Not Yet Ready”). Levels of proficiency from the rubric as- sessment may or
may not be translated into a num- ber/letter

grade,

depending

on the

requirements of the teacher’s school and state.
Though widely used, it is important to note that rubrics are not the only way to
assess learning from authentic instruction. For example, some schools and
teachers use narrative

description of student

combination with rubrics,

or as the primary

work and progress, either in
system of feedback

and

assessment.
While different levels of authentic instruction are now widely practiced, there
are also challenges to the viability of this type of approach to teaching and
learning. One challenge comes from within teachers themselves, as teachers
who have not ex- perienced such teaching in their own schooling of- ten have
difficulties manifesting authentic instruction philosophies, especially without
ongo- ing support. Moreover, schools (particularly second- ary schools) have
traditionally been organized around “control” of students, whereas authentic
instruction involves allowing

students

to

control, to varying degrees, the

pacing, scope, and sequence of their learning.
On a wider political level, the recent rise of high- stakes testing has posed a great
threat to authentic instruction. The resurgence of the testing movement came in
response to the perception by some that pro- gressive pedagogies were failing to
serve students. Authentic instruction became a target for accusations of “feel-good
fluffiness” in schools, with no concrete or measurable learning taking place. In the
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, test scores were the pri- mary suggested
measurement to determine whether a student, teacher, or school was failing.
As this chapter

on

instruction is being written, there is ambivalence and

confusion about authentic instruction. There has been some backlash to the
testing movement; yet many have embraced testing as a path
how

students

across

to ascertain

social strata are performing in schools. Teachers

continue to struggle to make learning relevant to their stu- dents, even as “the
test” looms and dictates much of the curriculum. As schools react to threats of
loss of funding, independence, or existence, for low per- formance

on tests,

authentic instruction continues in enclaves. About half of charter schools and
many private schools are organized
13

around

authentic- based missions,

sometimes receiving waivers on tests that other schools must adhere to so that
their stu- dents and teachers can have more curricular choice and control.
As schools become increasingly market-driven, some argue that authentic
instruction is still avail- able where there is a demand through such avenues as
charter

and private schools. Others,

however,

claim that the widespread

embracing of high-stakes testing by public schools has led to minimal levels of
rel- evant thinking, reading, and writing for most stu- dents (King and O’Brien
2002). As public school students’ real-life interests are decreasingly valued in
favor of a common set of standards, it is the more affluent students—through
guidance and money from prosperous parents—who are able to transcend the
basic school curriculum and experience “enriching real-life activities” in private
(King and O’Brien 2002,44–45). If this is true, it can be argued that authentic
instruction is becoming a commodity obtained mostly outside of public schooling
by those who know the most about it and are able to afford.
Individualized instruction can be characterized as a learning relationship that is
direct and customized. Teachers delivering individualized instruction would work
to become aware of a student’s strengths, needs, and interests, and then would
match curricular con- tent and instructional method to the individual learner.
Instruction focused on the individual

learner

can occur in a variety of

educational settings. Within tra- ditional whole classrooms, a teacher might work
with a student and her parents to develop an individual plan for inquiry and
growth underneath an umbrella theme, topic, or sequence. Students with special
learn- ing needs might receive more official individualized learning via a process
commonly

called an Individu- alized Education

Program

(IEP), sometimes

receiv- ing instruction in smaller classes or with the aid of a paraprofessional.
Another way instruction can be individualized is through tutoring, lessons, or
appren-

ticeship,

where

the

learner

works

one-on-one

with

a

more

knowledgeable person to develop particular skills or habits of mind.
Although

individualized

instruction commonly includes the learner receiving

more personalized “face time” with a teacher, there are divergences in approach. For example, some individualized instruc- tion focuses on developing
the learner’s strengths, while others focus on ameliorating the learner’s
weaknesses.
Influenced by the work of Harvard University’s Howard Gardner in the 1980s,
14

individualized instruc- tion focused upon developing a student’s strengths has been
bolstered by the concept of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1983). According to
Gardner’s original theory, there are seven categories in which an indi- vidual can
be intelligent (linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical,
interper- sonal, and intrapersonal); Gardner later amended this theory to include
an eighth intelligence (naturalistic). Because traditional mass instruction has
focused pri- marily on the linguistic and logical-mathematical, some educators have
embraced Gardner’s theories as a way to break

from

the past and tailor

instruction to the many ways an individual can be intelligent. Thus, in dividualized
instruction guided by the concept of multiple

intelligences

often

involves a

student learn- ing unfamiliar content and skills through his or her strengths—
which might include painting, composing, drama, and poetry. Within a particular
domain of learn- ing, the teacher serves as a bridge, drawing from the individual’s
innate intelligences to help the student learn new ma