A Morphemic Analysis Of Loanwords From English Vocabularies In Kompas Selected Columns

5 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1.Review of Study

In doing an analysis scientifically it is important to look upon another work which has been done before. Through reflecting on it, the analysis could take some different perspectives from those works, such as the theory, the methodology and the way they analyze the data. Those works, in a narrow or wide paradigm, may help to finish and conclude an analysis well.

The work which is going to be discussed is “Penyerapan Leksikon ɑsing dalam Bidang Otomotif ke Dalam Bahasa Indonesia (Dahreni 2009). Dahreni analyzed the process of word- formation in Bahasa Indonesia from the loanwords or terms that are derived from other languages especially from English. She also analyzed borrowing of foreign languages based on the morphological forms of word structuring. The morphological forms found in loanwords of foreign terms in automotive are affixation, reduplication, and abbreviation.

This analysis is aimed at describing language change used by the speaker along with culture, science, and technology development. The findings are expected to get positive impacts of the development in translation and language borrowing in automotive field derived from foreign languages in Bahasa Indonesia. This analysis also is aimed at increasing vocabularies in Bahasa Indonesia from borrowing foreign words.

6 2.2.Theoretical Review

2.2.1. Morphology

Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construction. It is traditionally distinguished from syntax, which deals with the rules governing the combination of words in sentences. It is generally divided into two fields: the study of inflections (inflectional morphology) and of word-formation (lexical or derivational morphology) – a distinction which is sometimes accorded theoretical status (split morphology). In other words, morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies and discusses complications of word structure and the change of words structure, meaning and word-class (Crystal 2008:314).

Morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming words. The morpheme arrangements which are treated under the morphology of a language include all combinations that form words or parts of words. In morphology, the system for the combining of morphemes is different with syntax. In syntax, there may be such alternative orders as “John ran away”, “ɑway ran John”, and “ɑway John ran”, in morphology, the order is fixed. Even in English is found complex structures, e.g. “formalizers”, in which are consisted of five morphemes. The shift in order one morpheme makes the word quite unintelligible, e.g. “formizalers” (Nida 1949:1).

Bloomfield cited in Muchtar (2009:2) states that morphology is the construction in which bound forms appear among the constituents. The resultants forms are either bound forms or words, but never phrases. It is clearly defined that morphology is the study that analyzes the structuring words and then it is developed into the full words used as grammatical units of language.

7 Verhaar (2008:97) states that “morfologi adalah bidang linguistic yang mengidentifikasi satuan-satuan dasar bahasa sebagai satuan gramatikal”. It is said that the additional of grammar here is obviously needed because every word can be divided into the smallest part which is called phoneme. But phoneme is not always a morpheme. In short, morpheme here is the part which is formed by the smallest constituent grammatical. For example, the word “undo” consists of four phonemes and two morphemes, “un-”and“do”.

Morphology is bound in its discipline. Bound is the study that only works through word structures and grammatical exchanges. Morphology does not always break a sentence down into the smallest part until it has reached the level of words. When the level of words has been reached, it will be easy to determine the word structuring.

2.2.2. Word

Every sentence written in the books, newspapers, magazines are formed by a word combined with another word. Not only in the written form, but also in every statement uttered by people is formed by a word. Word is a part of sentence consists of one or more letters or syllables and had certain meaning. Therefore the word can be analyzed by the structure and meaning. Hockett (1958: 166) states that a word is thus any segment or a sentence bounded by successive points at which pausing is possible. Based on his statement, he defines that it should be possible to make pausing among the words. It is based on how someone utters and stresses the intonation in a sentence.

Bloomfield cited in Parera (1988:2) states that word is a free form consists of two or more lesser free forms as, for instance, “poor John” or “John ran away” or “yes, Sir”, is a phrase. Free form does not consist entirely of two or more lesser free

8 form: in brief, a word is minimum free form. Minimum free form refers to a form that can be uttered alone and had meaning, but the form can’t be separated from the other form. These forms can’t be uttered and have no meaning. Based on this view, the minimum free from of word can be defined in words such as “quickly”, “lower”, and “highest”. From those words, the words “quickly”, “lower”, and “highest” are the minimum free form because the words consist of free form such as “quick”, “low”, and “high” and they are followed by form such as “–ly”, “-er”, and “–est”. These forms are also words but they don’t possess a meaning and they should be bound to free form to make them meaningful.

Words tend to be smaller than sentence and it is combined to form a sentence. However sometimes in some languages, a single word can posses a “sentence” meaning. In a spoken or “signed” languages, words, there are no spaces or pauses to delineate words. It is pointed out that the words don’t need to be written to know their existence. The existence of words can be seen when they use and give meaning to a sentence that is uttered by people.

2.2.3. Morpheme

The term morpheme refers to the smallest, invisible units of semantic content or grammatical function which words are made up (Katamba 1993:20). In other case, he defines morpheme as the smallest difference in shape of a word correlates with the smallest difference in word or sentence meaning or in grammatical structure.

Nida (1949:6) states that morphemes are the minimal meaningful units which may constitute words or parts of words. For example, English words “boyish”, “maddening”, “condense”, “receive”, and “up”, have a little difficulty in identifying the various component units such as “boy”, “-ish”, “mad”, “-en”, “ing”, “con-“, “ -dense”, “re-“, “-ceive”, and “up”. Those words should be broken down into their

9 constituents parts. In order to identify the morphemes, the constituents must have certain partially similar forms that can be recognized recurring partials. It should have the comparison of words in which each form contains morpheme in a different situation. This means, the morpheme can be discovered from the comparison and isolation with the other forms.

Hockett (1958:123) states that morpheme as the smallest individually meaningful elements in the utterances of a language. He gives an easy way to find a morpheme in a speech in a language. For example, “John was looking for the glasses”. He gives a statement as what is said that form of the sentence can be separated into the smallest part and is possible for that form to reuse in other sentences with more or less same meaning. The sentence can be separated as the morpheme such as:

- John - was - look - ing – for – the – glass – es

Morpheme always has a meaning and also can’t be divided into the smallest part anymore because the meaning contains in that morpheme will disappear. The meaning contains in the morpheme is either lexical meaning or grammatical meaning.

Morpheme is divided into two parts such as free morpheme and bound morpheme. Free morpheme is the morpheme that can stand alone without being added by another morpheme. This means, the free morpheme doesn’t need another form of morpheme to join with the morpheme itself and it can be separated from the other “free” form of morpheme whether it is in front or at the back, is pronunciation. Bound morpheme is the morpheme that can’t stand alone and can be melted itself into the other morpheme. Katamba (1993:42) states that bound morpheme is the morpheme in which is incapable of occurring in isolation and always occurs with

10 some other word- building elements attached to. In short, bound morpheme is not an independent morpheme and it doesn’t have meaning if it stands alone.

Here are some examples that describe free morphemes and bound morphemes.

Free Morpheme Bound Morpheme

Nation National

Power Powerful

Hard Hardest

Print Printer

Mean Meaning

Easy Easily

Able Unable

Regular Irregular

Courage Encourage

Perfect Imperfect

Table 2.1: free morphemes and bound morphemes

2.2.4. Root, Base, and Stem

Looking at words that have some internal structure, it might be possible to decide that the elements that consist of internal structure are not all equal. In

11 “sending”, for instance, it can be seen the structure of “send-ing” and it can be concluded that the free morpheme “send” has had the bound morpheme “–ing” attached after it. The key elements to which others are added, is called the root of the word. Katamba (1993:41) states that a root is the irreducible core of a word, with absolutely nothing else is attached to it. It is the part that always present, possibly with some modification, in the various manifestations of a lexeme. For example, “walk” is a root and it appears in the set of word-forms that instantiate the lexeme “walk” such as “walk”, “walks”, “walking”, and “walked”.

The additional elements such as “–ly”, “-est”, “-er”, “-ing”, “-im”, “-un”, etc which are well known as affixes, are not independent. They are added to other elements. It is called a base. All roots are potentially bases. Katamba (1993:45) states that a base is any unit whatsoever to which affixes of any kind can be added. The affixes attached to a base may be inflectional affixes selected for syntactic reason or derivational affixes which alter the meaning or grammatical category of the base. For example, an unadorned root like “boy” can be a base since it has an inflectional affix like “–s” to form the plural “boys” or derivational affix like “–ish” to turn the noun boy into the adjective “boyish”.

The affixes are not usually formed in a lexical. Some of the affixes are grammatical. What are added to grammatical affixes is called a stem, whether it is simple or complex in its own structure. Katamba (1993:45) states that a stem is part of a word that appears before any inflectional affixes (i.e. those affixes whose presence is required by the syntax such as markers of singular and plural number in nouns, tense, verbs, etc.) have been added. In “cats”, for instance, the plural inflectional suffix “–s” is attached to the simple stem “cat”, which is a bare root or the irreducible core of the word.

12 Coates (1993:29) simply defines the term of root, base, and stem. He states that root is a morpheme on which the rest of a word is built, base is any structure to which an affix may be added, and stem is any base to which a grammatical affix may be added. He also states that there are two kinds of affixes, lexical affixes which are formed separated from dictionary word by being attached to bases and grammatical affixes which add grammatical meanings to the meaning of their stems. Based on that view, it is concluded that all roots are bases. Bases are called stem only in the context of inflectional morphology.

2.3.Morphemic Analysis

Parera (1988:18) states that “proses morfemis adalah proses pembentukan kata bermorfem jamak baik derivatif maupun inflektif.” This process is meant and functioned as the complement of lexical meaning which is possessed by a base form. Generally the morphemic processes are divided into some process, such as affixation, reduplication, internal change, conversion, suprasegemental morphemic (inflection and derivation), etc.

2.3.1. Affixation

The affixation is the process generally used in language, even in morphemic process. Parera (1988:18) states that affixation is the morphemic process that occurs if a bound morpheme is added to the free morpheme or in other words, affixation is the process of adding bound morpheme into base form. Based on the position of bound morpheme towards free morpheme, the affixation processes are divided into three parts.

13 1. Prefix

Prefix is the affixation process that happens if the bound morpheme is added in front of base form or free morpheme of word. For example, “un -”, “re-”, “de-”, “im-” in words unhappy, rebuilt, deactivate, immortal. 2. Suffix

Suffix is the process of affixation that happens if bound morpheme is added in the end of the free morpheme or base form. For example, “-s”, “ -ion”, “-ish”, “-er”, “-ly”, “-ful”, “-est” in words books, delegation, childish, farmer, fully, beautiful, and highest.

3. Confix

Confix is the process of affixation in which the affixation is divided by the bound morpheme. For example, “un-ly”, “ir-able”, “im-ity” in words “uneasily”, “irreplaceable”, “immortality”.

4. Infix

Infix is the process of affixation in which the bound morpheme is added in the middle of free morpheme. In English, there is no infix process in word formation, but in Bahasa Indonesia the process still exists. For example, “-em”,“-el”, and “-er” in words gemuruh, telunjuk, gerigi. 2.3.2. Internal Change

Parera (1994:19) states that “pergantian internal adalah sebuah proses dimana sebuah morfem dasar bebas dapat mengalami perubahan dalam tubuhnya sendiri dengan adanya pergantian salah satu unsur fonemnya baik konsonan, vocal maupun cirri-ciri suprasegmental (nada, tekanan, durasi, dan sendi).” For example, the words foot /fut/ and feet /fiyt/ are the form that have different meaning because of the changing of /u/ with /iy/ in foot /fut/ (singular) and feet /fiyt/ (plural).

14 2.3.3. Reduplication

Reduplication is the morphemic process of word that reduplicates the base form whether it is partial, whole word, or even the changing of sounds. For examples, “handy-dandy”, “bow-wow”, “chit-chat”, “walkie-talkie”, “zig-zag”, etc. In Bahasa Indonesia, for example,“lelaki” (partial reduplication),“mondar-mandir” (reduplication with the changing of sounds), and “meja-meja” (reduplication of whole word).

2.3.4. Conversion

Conversion or zero derivation is the process of word formation from the word to other word without any segmental changes. For example, the word “sheep” is the singular free morpheme, if it is changed into plural it is still “sheep” because there no any segmental changes. Compared with the singular “dog”, if it is changed into plural it will be “dogs” (the affixation process with the addition of -s).

2.3.5. Derivational

Parera (1994:21) states that “derivasi adalah sebuah proses pembentukan kata yang terjadi apabila sebuah kata bermorfem jamak secara sintaksis berdistribusi dan mempunyai equivalen dengan sebuah kata bermorfem tunggal”. For example, the word farmer is derived from verb “farm” and added with morpheme “–er” becomes farmer (noun) and word “girlish” is an adjective which is derived from noun, “girl” and added with morpheme “-ish”.

2.3.6. Inflectional

Parera (1994:22) states that “infleksi adalah sebuah proses morfologis yang menimbulkan satu perubahan bentuk kata bermorfem jamak dan beentuk-bentuk ini secara sintaksis tidak mempunyai ekuivalen dalam distribusi sintaksis dengan sebuah kata bermorfem tunggal”. Generally this process only reveals syntax and it is not

15 brought to the replacement from the word-class to other word-class. The distribution of inflectional process is wider than derivational process. The form of inflectional is usually divided into some grammatical categories such as gender (man/male and woman/female) time, active and passive forms, and other category that have possibility with the characteristic of certain languages.

In English, the following examples will be explained.

Base Form Inflectional Word-Class Category

Boy Boys Noun Plural

Instrumentalist Instrumentalists Noun Plural

Pretty

Prettier Adjective Comparison

(Degree) Prettiest

Good

Better Adjective Comparison

(Degree) Best

Stop Stopped Verb Time

Give Gave Verb Time

Table 2.2: inflectional forms

2.4.Loanwords

Loanwords are the words that are taken from one language to another language. The loanwords are categorized into the sociolinguistics which discusses the social phenomenon of language with regards to the human being and the use of language in society. Wardaugh cited in Hanafiah (2013:81-91) states that loanwords refer to words that are borrowed from different languages and used them in their

16 utterance. He also states whether the foreign words are adopted or not, two types of loanwords have been distinguished as follows:

1. Spontaneous loanwords

Spontaneous loanwords are foreign words that receive no adaptation at all or they may receive it but the adaptation is not apparently noticeable in the base language. For example, the English “thank” is written thank (without spelling change, pronounced as /θæŋk/ and without changing the phoneme /θ/ into /t/, and without erasing the sound of /k/ at the end of the word).

2. Incorporated loanwords

Incorporated loanwords are words that are borrowed and receive affixes, sounds, or spelling adjustment in the base language. For example, the English “handphone” has been pronounced /hænpon/ and sometimes written “henpon”, the word “juice” become “jus”, “paragraph” become “paragraf”, etc.

Besides the two types above, he also distinguishes two types of loan words based on the level of the necessity in borrowing the words, the types are:

1. Necessary loanwords

Necessary loanwords, also named importations, are words borrowed from foreign languages by bilinguals into their utterance because they find there is no exact word in their own language that can express what they mean. For examples, the Indonesia words related to invention of technology “televise”, “telepon”, “computer”, and “internet” are absorbed from English words, “television”, “telephone”, “computer”, and “internet”.

17 2. Unnecessary loanwords

Unnecessary loanwords are the words from a foreign language that are borrowed although there are actually corresponding words in the language receive that may be used to substitute them. The following list is popular loanwords found in Bahasa Indonesia that demonstrate the unnecessary. Some of the Bahasa Indonesia corresponding items indeed look more foreign than the English that have been frequently and widely used.

English Loanword Bahasa Indonesia Corresponding Items

Keywords Kata kunci

Software Perangkat lunak

Microphone Pelantang

E-mail Pos elektronik

Scanner Pemindai

Handphone Telepon genggam

Keyboard Papan tombol

Snack Kudapan

Laundry Penatu;dobi

Web-news Jejaring berita

12 Coates (1993:29) simply defines the term of root, base, and stem. He states that root is a morpheme on which the rest of a word is built, base is any structure to which an affix may be added, and stem is any base to which a grammatical affix may be added. He also states that there are two kinds of affixes, lexical affixes which are formed separated from dictionary word by being attached to bases and grammatical affixes which add grammatical meanings to the meaning of their stems. Based on that view, it is concluded that all roots are bases. Bases are called stem only in the context of inflectional morphology.

2.3.Morphemic Analysis

Parera (1988:18) states that “proses morfemis adalah proses pembentukan kata bermorfem jamak baik derivatif maupun inflektif.” This process is meant and functioned as the complement of lexical meaning which is possessed by a base form. Generally the morphemic processes are divided into some process, such as affixation, reduplication, internal change, conversion, suprasegemental morphemic (inflection and derivation), etc.

2.3.1. Affixation

The affixation is the process generally used in language, even in morphemic process. Parera (1988:18) states that affixation is the morphemic process that occurs if a bound morpheme is added to the free morpheme or in other words, affixation is the process of adding bound morpheme into base form. Based on the position of bound morpheme towards free morpheme, the affixation processes are divided into three parts.

13 1. Prefix

Prefix is the affixation process that happens if the bound morpheme is

added in front of base form or free morpheme of word. For example, “un

-”, “re-”, “de-”, “im-” in words unhappy, rebuilt, deactivate, immortal. 2. Suffix

Suffix is the process of affixation that happens if bound morpheme is

added in the end of the free morpheme or base form. For example, “-s”, “

-ion”, “-ish”, “-er”, “-ly”, “-ful”, “-est” in words books, delegation, childish, farmer, fully, beautiful, and highest.

3. Confix

Confix is the process of affixation in which the affixation is divided by

the bound morpheme. For example, “un-ly”, “ir-able”, “im-ity” in words

“uneasily”, “irreplaceable”, “immortality”. 4. Infix

Infix is the process of affixation in which the bound morpheme is added in the middle of free morpheme. In English, there is no infix process in word formation, but in Bahasa Indonesia the process still exists. For

example, “-em”,“-el”, and “-er” in words gemuruh, telunjuk, gerigi. 2.3.2. Internal Change

Parera (1994:19) states that “pergantian internal adalah sebuah proses dimana sebuah morfem dasar bebas dapat mengalami perubahan dalam tubuhnya sendiri dengan adanya pergantian salah satu unsur fonemnya baik konsonan, vocal maupun cirri-ciri suprasegmental (nada, tekanan, durasi, dan sendi).” For example, the words foot /fut/ and feet /fiyt/ are the form that have different meaning because of the changing of /u/ with /iy/ in foot /fut/ (singular) and feet /fiyt/ (plural).

14 2.3.3. Reduplication

Reduplication is the morphemic process of word that reduplicates the base form whether it is partial, whole word, or even the changing of sounds. For examples, “handy-dandy”, “bow-wow”, “chit-chat”, “walkie-talkie”, “zig-zag”, etc. In Bahasa Indonesia, for example,“lelaki” (partial reduplication),“mondar-mandir” (reduplication with the changing of sounds), and “meja-meja” (reduplication of whole word).

2.3.4. Conversion

Conversion or zero derivation is the process of word formation from the word to other word without any segmental changes. For example, the word “sheep” is the singular free morpheme, if it is changed into plural it is still “sheep” because there no any segmental changes. Compared with the singular “dog”, if it is changed into plural it will be “dogs” (the affixation process with the addition of -s).

2.3.5. Derivational

Parera (1994:21) states that “derivasi adalah sebuah proses pembentukan kata yang terjadi apabila sebuah kata bermorfem jamak secara sintaksis berdistribusi dan mempunyai equivalen dengan sebuah kata bermorfem tunggal”. For example, the

word farmer is derived from verb “farm” and added with morpheme “–er” becomes farmer (noun) and word “girlish” is an adjective which is derived from noun, “girl” and added with morpheme “-ish”.

2.3.6. Inflectional

Parera (1994:22) states that “infleksi adalah sebuah proses morfologis yang menimbulkan satu perubahan bentuk kata bermorfem jamak dan beentuk-bentuk ini secara sintaksis tidak mempunyai ekuivalen dalam distribusi sintaksis dengan sebuah kata bermorfem tunggal”. Generally this process only reveals syntax and it is not

15 brought to the replacement from the word-class to other word-class. The distribution of inflectional process is wider than derivational process. The form of inflectional is usually divided into some grammatical categories such as gender (man/male and woman/female) time, active and passive forms, and other category that have possibility with the characteristic of certain languages.

In English, the following examples will be explained.

Base Form Inflectional Word-Class Category

Boy Boys Noun Plural

Instrumentalist Instrumentalists Noun Plural

Pretty

Prettier Adjective Comparison

(Degree) Prettiest

Good

Better Adjective Comparison

(Degree) Best

Stop Stopped Verb Time

Give Gave Verb Time

Table 2.2: inflectional forms

2.4.Loanwords

Loanwords are the words that are taken from one language to another language. The loanwords are categorized into the sociolinguistics which discusses the social phenomenon of language with regards to the human being and the use of language in society. Wardaugh cited in Hanafiah (2013:81-91) states that loanwords refer to words that are borrowed from different languages and used them in their

16 utterance. He also states whether the foreign words are adopted or not, two types of loanwords have been distinguished as follows:

1. Spontaneous loanwords

Spontaneous loanwords are foreign words that receive no adaptation at all or they may receive it but the adaptation is not apparently noticeable in the base language. For example, the English “thank” is written thank (without spelling change, pronounced as /θæŋk/ and without changing the

phoneme /θ/ into /t/, and without erasing the sound of /k/ at the end of the word).

2. Incorporated loanwords

Incorporated loanwords are words that are borrowed and receive affixes, sounds, or spelling adjustment in the base language. For example, the English “handphone” has been pronounced /hænpon/ and sometimes written “henpon”, the word “juice” become “jus”, “paragraph” become

“paragraf”, etc.

Besides the two types above, he also distinguishes two types of loan words based on the level of the necessity in borrowing the words, the types are:

1. Necessary loanwords

Necessary loanwords, also named importations, are words borrowed from foreign languages by bilinguals into their utterance because they find there is no exact word in their own language that can express what they mean. For examples, the Indonesia words related to invention of technology “televise”, “telepon”, “computer”, and “internet” are absorbed from English words, “television”, “telephone”, “computer”, and

17 2. Unnecessary loanwords

Unnecessary loanwords are the words from a foreign language that are borrowed although there are actually corresponding words in the language receive that may be used to substitute them. The following list is popular loanwords found in Bahasa Indonesia that demonstrate the unnecessary. Some of the Bahasa Indonesia corresponding items indeed look more foreign than the English that have been frequently and widely used.

English Loanword Bahasa Indonesia Corresponding Items

Keywords Kata kunci

Software Perangkat lunak

Microphone Pelantang

E-mail Pos elektronik

Scanner Pemindai

Handphone Telepon genggam

Keyboard Papan tombol

Snack Kudapan

Laundry Penatu;dobi

Web-news Jejaring berita