Caribbean english varieties spoken by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea.

ABSTRACT

PONDAAG, JEANNE MARIA PINGKAN HAPSARI. Caribbean English Varieties Spoken by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University 2015.

The Caribbean is the one of third world countries that has associated English with local culture to produce new literature. One of the famous Caribbean authors is Jean Rhys (1890) who wrote Wide Sargasso Sea. The writer uses this novel as the object of the study to find out Caribbean English varieties used by the three native characters which are Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway.

Two problem formulations were formulated as followed: first, what kinds of Caribbean English dialect are used by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in

Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea? Second, what sociolinguistics factors influenced the three characters in using this variety of English?

This thesis used both library and empirical studies by gathering the data from the utterances of three characters in the novel by reading a novel. The writer collected the data by gathering all utterances of three characters that are indicated as Caribbean English dialect. Next, the writer classified the data based on three linguistic features used to analyze the problem such as grammar, lexicon, and repetition.

In the grammatical analysis, the writer found 69 data in Christophine’s utterances, 11 data in Amélie’s utterances, and 24 data in Daniel’s utterances. For the

lexical analysis, the writer found 37 data in Christophine’s utterances, 3 data in

Amélie’s utterances, and 4 data in Daniel’s utterances. For the repetition analysis, the writer found 36 data in Christophine’s utterances, 4 data in Amélie’s utterances, and 8 data in Daniel’s utterances. For social factors analysis, the writer concluded that all of the three characters used this variety in the context of informal situation. On the other hand, in the context of formal situation, the three characters used formal language although their dialect (grammatical and lexical style) was different from British people as well.

ABSTRAK

PONDAAG, JEANNE MARIA PINGKAN HAPSARI. Caribbean English Varieties Spoken by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University 2015.

Kepulauan Karibia merupakan salah satu bagian dari negara belahan dunia ketiga yang menyatukan bahasa Inggris dengan kebudayaan lokal menjadi sebuah karya sastra baru. Jean Rhys (1890) adalah salah satu dari sastrawan Karibia yang terkenal dengan karyanya Wide Sargasso Sea. Penulis menggunakan novel ini sebagai sasaran penelitian untuk mengetahui penggunaan variasi bahasa Inggris Karibia oleh tiga karakter pribumi yaitu Christophine, Amélie, dan Daniel Cosway.

Dua rumusan masalah dirumuskan sebagai berikut: pertama, dialek apakah yang digunakan oleh Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway di ini? Kedua, Faktor sosial apakah yang mempengaruhi tiga karakter dalam menggunakan variasi tersebut? Penelitian ini menggunakan studi pustaka dan studi empiris dengan mengumpulkan data dari ungkapan-ungkapan tiga karakter dengan membaca keseluruhan novel. Penulis mengumpulkan ungkapan-ungkapan tiga karakter yang di indikasi sebagai dialek bahasa inggris Karibia. Selanjutnya, penulis mengklasifikasikan data berdasarkan tiga fitur linguistik yaitu tata bahasa, perbendaharaan kata, dan morfologi.

Pada analisis tata bahasa, ditemukan 69 data pada pengucapan Christophine, 11 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Amélie, dan 24 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Daniel. Pada analisis perbendaharaan kata, ditemukan 37 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Christophine, 3 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Amélie, dan 4 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Daniel. Pada analisis morfologi, ditemukan 36 data ditemukan pada penngucapan Christophine, 4 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Amélie, dan 8 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Daniel. Pada analisis sosiolinguistik, penulis menyimpulkan ketiga karakter menggunakan variasi ini pada konteks tidak formal. Sementara dalam konteks formal, ketiga karakter menggunakan ragam formal pada variasi mereka meskipun secara tata bahasa dan perbendaharaan kata sangat berbeda dari penutur asli pada umumnya.

CARIBBEAN ENGLISH VARIETIES SPOKEN

BY CHRISTOPHINE, AMÉLIE, AND DANIEL COSWAY IN

JEAN RHYS’S

WIDE SARGASSO SEA

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

JEANNE MARIA PINGKAN HAPSARI PONDAAG

Student Number: 104214031

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2015

i

CARIBBEAN ENGLISH VARIETIES SPOKEN

BY CHRISTOPHINE, AMÉLIE, AND DANIEL COSWAY IN

JEAN RHYS’S

WIDE SARGASSO SEA

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

By

JEANNE MARIA PINGKAN HAPSARI PONDAAG

Student Number: 104214031

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2015

iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I certify that this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been previously submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that, to the best of my knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material previously written by any other person except where due reference is made in the text of the undergraduate thesis.

Yogyakarta, Juni 22, 2015

v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma

Nama : Jeanne Maria Pingkan Hapsari Pondaag Nomor Mahasiswa : 104214031

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul

CARIBBEAN ENGLISH VARIETIES SPOKEN BY CHRISTOPHINE, AMÉLIE, AND DANIEL COSWAY IN JEAN RHYS’S WIDE SARGASSO SEA Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepda Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenernya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal 22 Juni 2015

Yang menyatakan,

vi

“Motivation is the art of getting people to do what you

want th

em to do because they want to do it.”

(Dwight D. Eisenhower)

“I came, I saw, I conquered.”

(Julius Caesar)

“I am so clever that sometimes I don’t understand a single word

of what I am saying.” (Oscar Wilde)

Elegance is when the inside is as beautif

ul

as the outside. Chanel

vii

For

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This is the page for expressing my gratitude to those in my life who have helped me finish the undergraduate thesis.

The first, I would like thank My Almighty God, Jesus Christ for the blessing and guidance to me, so I can think wisely, patiently, and modestly in the process of writing this undergraduate thesis.

I would like to express my greatest attitude to my advisor, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A for his guidance, support, encouragement, ideas, patience, inspiration, and also knowledge for me to finish my undergraduate thesis. Also I would thank my co-advisor, Adventina Putranti S.S., M.Hum., for her advice, encouragement, guidance, and critics in the correction of my thesis.

My deep gratitude goes to my parents, Christina Rumiyati and Alexander Leonardus Pondaag for their support, critics, advice, and reminder to me to finish my study on time. It is also due to my brother, Alexander Rizky Hapsoro Pondaag for sharing his experience, tips, ideas, also electronics devices in finishing our undergraduate thesis together.

I would extend my gratitude to all lectures and staffs at the English Letters Department for sharing the knowledge and giving me advice during my study in Sanata Dharma University. To my spirit team, UKF Basket Sastra, I would like to thank Meity Adelina, Susi Luviya, and Sumunar Renaningtyas for our togetherness in competitions and practices. To all friends of Sastra Inggris 2010, thanks for our togetherness in our study, Christopher Tjia for helping me to organize the data analysis and also giving me continuous support to finish my undergraduate thesis, Julyan Adhitama for giving me remarkable advice that is beneficial for revising my undergraduate thesis, Oktadea Herda Pratiwi for having fun, studying, and struggling together for our graduation, and Dona Windasari Septiana for always listening and understanding me in any condition.

Also I would like to thank all my family in OMK Aloysius Gonzaga (Deus, Opan, Lindi, Maria, Gradi, Reyna, Feby, etc.) and OMK Rayon Sleman (Duta, Deo, Hendra, Widi, Bowo, Ryan, Iyus, Steve, Icak, etc.) for the cooperation, togetherness, and the support for me in finishing my undergraduate thesis.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE_………. i

APPROVAL PAGE……… ii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE………. iii

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ILMIAH…... iv

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ……… v

MOTTO PAGE ……….. vi

DEDICATION PAGE……… vii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………... viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS………. ix

LIST OF TABLES_………... xii

ABSTRACT_………. xiv

ABSTRAK……… xv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION………... 1

A. Background of the Study ……….. 1

B. Problem Formulation ……… 3

C. Objectives of the Study ……… 3

D. Definition of Term ……… 4

CHAPTER II: _{REVIEW OF LITERATURE ……….} 5

A. Review of Related Studies ……… 5

B. Review of Related Theories ……….. 8

1. Theory of Language Varieties and Varieties of English … 8 2. Theory of Dialect ………. 9

3. Theory of Carribean Englishes ……… 10

a. Syntax ……….. 11

i. Copula ……….. 11

ii. Subject-verb agreement ……… 11

iii. Past Tense ………. 11

iv. Future Tense ………. 12

v. Subject and Object Pronouns and Possesive ……… 12

vi. Pluralization ………. 13

vii. Negation ……… 13

viii. Question formation inversion ……….. 14

b. Lexicon ……… 14

c. Morphology or repetition ……… 16

i. Repetition of elements or structure in clauses …….. 18

x

4. The Localized Forms of English ……….. 19

5. Theory of New Englishes ……… 20

6. Theory of Three Circles ………... 22

7. Style variation in English ………. 22

a. Language variation: dialect ……….. 22

b. Language variation: medium ……… 23

c. Language variation: tenor ………. 23

d. Language variation: domain ………. 24

8. Diglossia ……….. 24

9. Post-Creole Continuum ……… 25

C. Theoretical framework ……….. 26

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ……….. 28

A. Object of the Study ……… 28

B. Approach of the Study ……….. 29

C. Method of the Study ………. 30

1. Data Collection ……… 30

2. Data Analysis ………... 31

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS _{………….} 36

A. The Caribbean English dialect that is used by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway ……… 36

I. Grammatical Analysis ………. 38

1. The absence of copula before adjective, expression of location, noun, and in present progressive …………. 39

2. The absence of subject-verb agreement (third person) –s in present tense ………... 41

3. The use of simple present tense to refer past tense or future tense ………. 43

4. The absence of subject/verb or auxiliary element inversion in interrogative expression ………. 45

5. The use of negation or multiple negation ……… 46

6. The use singular for plural form of nouns ………….. 48

7. Differences in the use of personal pronouns ……….. 49

II. Lexical analysis ……… 50

1. Idiomatic Expression ……… 51

2. Coinages ……… 52

xi

4. Semantic modification ………. 55

5. Religious and spiritual terms ……… 58

6. Names of Flora and Fauna ……… 59

7. Dialectal terms ……….. 59

8. Toponyms ……… 61

III. Morphological Analysis ………. 65

1. Anaphora ………. 66

2. Epistrophe ……… 67

3. Symploce ……… 68

4. Word Repetition ……….. 69

B. The Social factors which influence three characters in using Caribbean English varieties ……… 70

1. Dialect ………. 71

i. Christophine ……… 71

ii. Amélie ………. 73

iii. Daniel Cosway ……… 74

2. Medium ……….. 75

i. Written ……… 75

ii. Oral ………. 76

3. Tenor ……….. 77

4. Domain ……… 79

i. Topic ……… 79

ii. Style ………. 81

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION _……… 88

BIBLIOGRAPHY _………. 91

APPENDICES _……… 94

Appendix 1 _………. 95

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Findings of features ………. 37

Table 2: Findings of grammar ……… 38

Table 3: The absence of copula in an adjective ……… 39

Table 4: The absence of copula in expression of location ……….. 40

Table 5: The absence of copula in noun ……… 40

Table 6: The absence of copula in a form of present continuous ……... 41

Table 7: The absence of third person –s in present tense ……….. 41

Table 8: The use of simple present tense to refer past tense ………….. 43

Table 9: The use of simple present tense to refer future tense ………… 43

Table 10: The absence of subject/verb or auxiliary in inversion (with helping verb do) ……….. 45

Table 11: The absence of subject/verb or auxiliary in inversion (without helping verb do)………... 46

Table 12: The use of negation ………. 47

Table 13: The use of multiple negation ……… 47

Table 14: The use of ain‟t ……… 48

Table 15: The use of singular or plural form of nouns ……… 49

Table 16: Differences in the use of personal pronouns ……… 49

Table 17: Findings of lexicon ……….. 50

Table 18: Idiomatic expression ……… 51

Table 19: Coinages ……….. 53

Table 20: Compounds ………. 54

Table 21: Semantic modification ………. 55

Table 22: Religious terms ……… 58

Table 23: Names of flora and fauna ……… 59

Table 24: Dialectal terms ………. 60

Table 25: Toponyms ……… 62

Table 26: Findings of repetition ………. 65

Table 27: Anaphora ………. 66

Table 28: Epistrophe ……… 67

Table 29: Symploce ………. 68

Table 30: Word Repetition ……….. 69

Table 31: Table of Christophine‟s dialect variation ……… 72

Table 32: Table of Amélie‟s dialect variation ………. ₇₃

Table 33: Table of Daniel Cosway‟s dialect variation ……….. 74

Table 34: Total list of Christophine‟s speech with other characters ……. 77

xiii

Table 36: Table of Daniel Cosway‟s list speech with other characters … 79 Table 37: Table of three characters domain of speech: topic …………... 79 Table 38: Table of Christophine‟s domain of speech: style (with

Antoinette) ……….. 81

Table 39: Table of Christophine‟s domain of speech: style (with

Rochester) ……… 82

Table 40: Table of Christophine‟s domain of speech: style (with

Amélie) ………. 82

Table 41: Table of Amélie‟s domain of speech: style

(with Antoinette) ……….. 83 Table 42: Table of Amélie‟s domain of speech: style

(with Rochester) ……… 84

Table 43: Table of Daniel‟s domain of speech: style

(with Rochester) ……… 84

xiv ABSTRACT

PONDAAG, JEANNE MARIA PINGKAN HAPSARI. Caribbean English Varieties Spoken by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University 2015.

The Caribbean is the one of third world countries that has associated English with local culture to produce new literature. One of the famous Caribbean authors is Jean Rhys (1890) who wrote Wide Sargasso Sea. The writer uses this novel as the object of the study to find out Caribbean English varieties used by the three native characters which are Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway.

Two problem formulations were formulated as followed: first, what kinds of Caribbean English dialect are used by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in

Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea? Second, what sociolinguistics factors influenced the three characters in using this variety of English?

This thesis used both library and empirical studies by gathering the data from the utterances of three characters in the novel by reading a novel. The writer collected the data by gathering all utterances of three characters that are indicated as Caribbean English dialect. Next, the writer classified the data based on three linguistic features used to analyze the problem such as grammar, lexicon, and repetition.

In the grammatical analysis, the writer found 69 data in Christophine‟s utterances, 11 data in Amélie‟sutterances, and 24 data in Daniel‟s utterances. For the lexical analysis, the writer found 37 data in Christophine‟s utterances, 3 data in Amélie‟s utterances, and 4 data in Daniel‟s utterances. For the repetition analysis, the

writer found 36 data in Christophine‟s utterances, 4 data in Amélie‟s utterances, and 8

data in Daniel‟s utterances. For social factors analysis, the writer concluded that all of

the three characters used this variety in the context of informal situation. On the other hand, in the context of formal situation, the three characters used formal language although their dialect (grammatical and lexical style) was different from British people as well.

xv ABSTRAK

PONDAAG, JEANNE MARIA PINGKAN HAPSARI. Caribbean English Varieties Spoken by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University 2015.

Kepulauan Karibia merupakan salah satu bagian dari negara belahan dunia ketiga yang menyatukan bahasa Inggris dengan kebudayaan lokal menjadi sebuah karya sastra baru. Jean Rhys (1890) adalah salah satu dari sastrawan Karibia yang terkenal dengan karyanya Wide Sargasso Sea. Penulis menggunakan novel ini sebagai sasaran penelitian untuk mengetahui penggunaan variasi bahasa Inggris Karibia oleh tiga karakter pribumi yaitu Christophine, Amélie, dan Daniel Cosway.

Dua rumusan masalah dirumuskan sebagai berikut: pertama, dialek apakah yang digunakan oleh Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway di ini? Kedua, Faktor sosial apakah yang mempengaruhi tiga karakter dalam menggunakan variasi tersebut? Penelitian ini menggunakan studi pustaka dan studi empiris dengan mengumpulkan data dari ungkapan-ungkapan tiga karakter dengan membaca keseluruhan novel. Penulis mengumpulkan ungkapan-ungkapan tiga karakter yang di indikasi sebagai dialek bahasa inggris Karibia. Selanjutnya, penulis mengklasifikasikan data berdasarkan tiga fitur linguistik yaitu tata bahasa, perbendaharaan kata, dan morfologi.

Pada analisis tata bahasa, ditemukan 69 data pada pengucapan Christophine, 11 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Amélie, dan 24 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Daniel. Pada analisis perbendaharaan kata, ditemukan 37 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Christophine, 3 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Amélie, dan 4 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Daniel. Pada analisis morfologi, ditemukan 36 data ditemukan pada penngucapan Christophine, 4 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Amélie, dan 8 data ditemukan pada pengucapan Daniel. Pada analisis sosiolinguistik, penulis menyimpulkan ketiga karakter menggunakan variasi ini pada konteks tidak formal. Sementara dalam konteks formal, ketiga karakter menggunakan ragam formal pada variasi mereka meskipun secara tata bahasa dan perbendaharaan kata sangat berbeda dari penutur asli pada umumnya.

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

English has become a global language which has a great history of its emergence. As the Germanic family of language, English language has been assimilated with Latin, Germany, and French. In the era of British Empire, English language has become the important thing for trading and common language that can unite nations over the entire world.

According to Llamzon, on his paper “Essential Features of New Varieties of

English,” said that new varieties of English are identifiable with four essential sets of

features: ecological, historical, sociolinguistics, and cultural (Llamzon, 1983:

100-104). Based on Llamzon‟s paper, English has united within four aspects of features which become some new variation of English language. The acculturation of English society made English has been expanded from local language through national to international. As a result, there have been many varieties of English or new Englishes around the world, especially in the third world areas such as America, Canada, Africa, Caribbean, India, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

New literatures in the third world countries are emerged by new Englishes that is giving an influence for people to write some literary works. Cultural features, in

Llamzon‟s “Four Essential Set of Features,” refer to the creative writing and a local literature in English. He argued that “works by novelists, poets, and playwrights have

demonstrated that English language can... be used as a vehicle for the transmission of

the cultural heritage of third world countries” (Llamzon, 1983: 104). Based on

Llamzon, the importance of creative writing and literature is significant. In this context, the Caribbean is part of third world countries that develops English language with local culture becoming a new literature. There are so many Caribbean authors writing about identity, ethnicity, and language through their story rising out their historical experiences.

One of the famous authors is Jean Rhys who wrote the unspoken of the

„madwoman in the attic‟ in Charlotte Brontë‟s Jane Eyre into her perspective side in

Wide Sargasso Sea. It was the historical novel with its setting in Jamaica and Dominica; it presents the story of a white-creole girl named Antoinette Cosway in the

age of colonialism (1830) where the slavery becomes the „trademark‟ of this era. Jean Rhys uses the background of slavery in Jamaica at 1830‟s to describe their condition using „non-standard‟ English reflected by the characters‟ speech in the novel.

In this study, the writer wants to find out Caribbean English (CE) dialect by

the three characters that are used in Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea such as Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway as native people through their speeches although the spoken representation is not served as a phonemic orthography but it is served as

written text in conventional spelling. For example, the lack of verb „to be‟ in the statement „I too old now‟ (Rhys, 1982:16), whereas Standard English (SE) states „I am too old now‟, is one of the structure types occurring in the creole language. Next,

the writer also observes the sociolinguistic influence of three characters in using their varieties through their participants, settings, topic, status, etc.

Observing the Caribbean English spoken in Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea is a challenge for the writer to study more deeply about the variation and the uniqueness of this language. The reason is motivating the writer to make this study. The writer believes that this study may help others to explore more deeply about Caribbean English as a variety of English worldwide and distinguish between the standard and non-standard English language.

B. Problem Formulation

There are two questions used to map and limit or focus the study. The questions are as follows:

1. What kinds of Caribbean English dialect are used by Christophine, Amélie,

and Daniel Cosway in Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea?

2. What sociolinguistic factors influence three characters in using this variety of English?

C. Objectives of the Study

Based on two problem formulation, there are two objectives of this study. The first objective of this study is to find out the Caribbean English dialect spoken by

Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea. The second is to observe the sociolinguistic influence of their spoken in the novel.

D. Definition of Terms

There are three definitions used to limit this study.

Caribbean English. Nordquist defines the term Caribbean English as “a

general term for the varieties of English language used in the Caribbean archipelago and on the Caribbean coast of Central America (including Nicaragua, Panama, and

Guyana)” (http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/ Caribbean-English-term.htm; 2006: September 24, 2014).

Varieties. Wardaugh defines varieties as a specific term of „human speech

patterns‟ consisting of sounds, words, grammatical features which are uniquely associated with some external factors such as geographical area or social group (Wardaugh, 1992: 22).

Characters. According to Abram, characters are “the person presented in

dramatic or narrative work, who are interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral, dispositional, and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say – the dialogue – and what they do –the action” (Abrams, 1985: 23).

5 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part is the review of related studies. This part presents some previous or similar researches which are related to this study through the object or the focus of the study. The second part is the review of related theories. This part presents some theories that are useful for the writer in analyzing the data. The last part is the theoretical framework. This part shows the contribution between the theories and reviews in solving the problems of the study.

A. Review of Related Studies

There are four related studies used to compare and relate with this study. The first one is an article entitled „What is English‟ - The discussion about poems in

non-standard varieties of English: John Agard‟s Listen Mr. Oxford and Tom Leonard‟s

Right inuff, by Jill and Charles Hadfield (2005), published in “ELT Journal” volume 59 no. 3, July 2005. In this article, Hadfield displays two poems with two different varieties (Glasgow dialect and Caribbean English). Two languages appeared in two poems are identical to Standard English, although some sentences and phrases are radically different. Each of them is written by the uneducated people. Agard‟s poem uses some linguistic notions of Caribbean English (syntax, grammar, tenses, suffix, and rhyme), while Leonard‟s poem uses Scots‟ speech in spelling, grammar, and vocabulary to represent Glasgow dialect in the working class. Both of poems give a

voice, identity, and legitimacy of non-standard Englishes to speak and provide a critique of those who would deny them.

The second one is an undergraduate thesis entitled “A Dialect Feature Seen in the Structure of Black English Spoken by Troy Maxon and its Effect toward the Understanding of the Story of Wilson‟s Fences” by Bernadeta Adityaningsih Nugrahani from the Department of English Letters, Sanata Dharma University (2008). This undergraduate thesis studies the structure of Black English and the effects of Black English used by the major character in Fences. The writer of the undergraduate thesis uses the qualitative method to gather the data by library studies and field research. For library studies, she analyzes the features of Black English in the play. For the field research, she conducts questionnaires and distributes them to anyone who has enough understanding about Black English. In conclusion, she has found ten features of Black English structure, and based on eight respondents, they understand the meaning, plot, and atmosphere of the play.

Another undergraduate thesis is “The Characters‟ Speech Styles and Their Social Backgrounds in Mark Twain‟s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” by Wivina Tomas from the Department of English Letters, Sanata Dharma University (2007). The purpose of the writer of the undergraduate thesis in conducting the study is to find out the varieties of English language and their social backgrounds by three main characters in the novel. In the analysis, the writer of the undergraduate thesis analyzes the three main characters‟ utterances by conducting their speeches based on

sociolinguistic theories. In conclusion, the writer of the undergraduate thesis concludes Huckleberry Finn, Jim, and Tom Sawyer are the main characters that have different dialects such as Southern dialect and Southern Negro dialect. In the social background analysis, the writer the undergraduate thesis concludes that Huck and Jim are the people who are uneducated and poor, while Tom is educated.

The last undergraduate thesis is written by Citra Rinanty entitled “The Varieties of English Spoken by Wolter Morel in D.H Lawrence‟s Sons and Lovers”,

from the Department of English Letters, Sanata Dharma University (2006). The purpose of the writer of the undergraduate thesis in conducting the study is to analyze the varieties of English spoken by Wolter Morel. There are some steps to accomplish the study such as collecting the data from the utterances of Walter Morel and categorizing into Standard English and Non-standard English. She applies the theories to answer two problems. Based on data, she concludes that from 126 utterances of Wolter Morel, there are approximately 75.4% of Non-standard English changes and the rest of them are considered Standard English changes according to the setting, addressee, topic, status, formality, and function.

Based on three studies and an article above, the writer has got some suggestion, theories, and influences to develop the study. The focus of the study is the

Caribbean English spoken by three characters in Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea and their social backgrounds that influence them to speak in those varieties.

B. Review of Related Theories

1. Theory of Language Varieties and Varieties of English

Bauer defines variety as “an academic term used for any kind of language production, whether we are viewing it as being determined by region, gender, social

class, age or by our own inimitable individual characteristics” (Bauer, 2002: 4).

Wardaugh offers another definition of variety that is “a specific set of „linguistics items‟ or „human speech patterns‟ (sounds, words, grammatical features, etc.) which can uniquely associated with some external factors (a geographical area or social

group)” (Wardaugh, 1992: 22).

Meanwhile, Mihalicek and Wilson define language varieties as a term to cover any form of language characterized by systematic features. It may be used to refer a distinctive language such as French or Italian, to refer a particular form of a language spoken by a specific group of people such as Appalachian English or New York English, and to refer the speech of a single person or refers to the way a single person speaks in a particular contexts (Mihalicek and Wilson, 2011: 409).

In the context of English Varieties, Quirk defines “varieties” of English with reference to the description of “standards” worldwide. He states that

“English is not the prerogative or “possession” of the English…

Acknowledging this must - as a corollary - involve our questioning the

propriety of claiming that the English of one area is more “correct” than the

English of another. Certainly, we must realise that there is no single “correct” English and no single standardof correctness” (Quirk, 1962: 17-18).

At the same time, Halliday, McIntosh, and Strevens also discuss the varieties of English in a range of decolonizing contexts,they mention that

“English is no longer the possession of the British, or even the British and the

Americans, but… exists in an increasingly large by number of different varieties…But the most important development of all seen in the emergence

of varieties that are identified with and are specific to particular countries from among the former British colonies. In West Africa, in the West Indies,

and In Pakistan and India…It is no longer accepted by the majority that the

English of England, with RP as its accent, are the only possible models of English to be set before the young” (Halliday, McIntosh, and Strevens, 1964: 293-294).

Based on their definition, English is not only a variety of British and American, but also a variety of particular countries of British colonies such as India, Pakistan, Africa, West Indies, etc.

2. Theory of Dialect

Mihalicek and Wilson define dialect as “a variety of language spoken by a group of people that is characterized by systematic differences from other varieties of the same language in terms of structural or lexical features (Grammar and

Vocabulary)” (Mihalicek and Wilson, 2011: 409). In fact, many people

misunderstand that “dialect” is a term to refer the differences in pronunciation or

slang usage. This happens because of the differences of pronunciation or vocabularies accompanied by variation in other areas.

Haugen defines dialect as local varieties of English, and for various types of informal, lower-class, or rural speech. In general usage, it remains quite undefined whether a dialect is part of “language” or not. The dialect is often thought of as standing outside the language as a social norm and a language that is exclude from polite society (Haugen, 1966: 924-925).

Dialect is often associated with nonstandard or substandard, depending on the using or applying the terms. It can connote various degrees of inferiority which are carried over to those who speak a dialect.

3. Theory of Caribbean Englishes

English languages in Caribbean reveal several socio-historical factors in the emergence of creole language. The main factor is the disproportional of social or power relationship in speakers of one language or more dominated socially, economically, military, and politically by powerful speakers of another language. In this situation, the European colonization and the institution of slavery brought immigrants from the west coast of Africa to America to work on a sugar plantation. As a result, they made a new language because of the domination of powerful language. They reshaped their speaking by trying to make sense of and reorganized the data (Aceto, 2006: 204).

Every former British colonial territory in the Caribbean reveals English as a language variety spoken today, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Barbados, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, Dominica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, Anguila, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and the various islands of the Bahamas, Jamaica, and the Cayman Islands. In many locations, some speakers may call their language pidgin or creole, or most simply call their native language dialect whether the qualifiers are bad, raw, or flat, they may simply call it English (Aceto, 2006: 206).

There are brief generalized features of English-derived creoles and dialects in the Caribbean. All of Anglophone creoles spoken in the Caribbean have synchronic differences in terms of lexicon, morphology, and syntax, even they also have similarities. The aim is to highlight basic features found in a range of Anglophone Caribbean.

a. Syntax i. Copula

Copula (be) is a linking element that carries tense which can be marked only on verbs and subject-verb agreement. The copula links nonverbal predicates (nouns, adjectives, and adverbials) and reflects the person and the number of the subject of noun as well in the present tense such as I am, he is, and you are, and so on (Celce and Larsen, 1999: 53).

According to Aceto, there are three functions of copula that are attributive, locative, and nominal. In attributive, the verb is is often no overt at all, for example

she all right, and she good. In locative, the inversion between the copula and noun is not required for question. In nominal, the form a, is, and be are no overt realization at all, for example she my sister (Aceto, 2006: 212).

ii. Subject-verb agreement

Fromkin states that agreement is a property of grammatical organization found in a pair of words. According to the rule, a verb has to agree with its subject (Fromkin, 2000: 237).

Roberts, in Nero‟s article “ESL or ESD? Teaching English to Caribbean

English Speakers”, said that “there is no inflection for subject-verb agreement.” For example: „My brother live in New York,‟ „He go to work by train‟ (Nero, 1997: 8). iii. Past Tense

According to Mc Arthur, the past tense of would and could is common in the CE where the SE has will and can, for example I would do it, and I could swim. The CE has past historic while in SE has simple past, for example the committee had decided (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-CARIBBE ANENGLISH; 1998: September 11, 2013).

Aceto also said that the past tense in the CE is common for unmarked dynamic verbs to have a past interpretation. Depending on the context, an utterance may be interpreted as in simple past or sometimes called past perfect. For example, the utterance „I ate‟ or„I have eaten‟ is close to „I already ate‟/ „I have already eaten‟

or „I‟m done eating‟, „I done ate already‟ in other varieties of English (Aceto, 2006:

212).

According to Nero, in “The Changing Faces of English: A Caribbean Perspective,” based on adaptation of Allsopp, Rickford, and Roberts information, she points out that in the past tense, verbs are left for tense although other signals (adverbs of time, such as yesterday, last week, etc.) often give linguistic clues about the timing of event. For example, „yesterday I wash the clothes‟, and„I work on that

iv. Future Tense

According to Aceto, the preverbal of future tense marker is /go/, /a go/, /goin/

or sometimes /wi/ „will‟. In Standard English, „they will dance‟ or „they are going to

dance‟ or „they are going to dance‟ will be variously translated as /dem go dans/, and

/dem wan dans/ (Aceto, 2006: 212).

v. Subject and Object Pronouns and Possessive

Singular Plural

/mi/, /a, ai/ (s) /wi, aawi/ me

/yu/ /unu, aayu, yaal/ you

/(h)im/ „he, she, it /de, dem/ /(h)i/ he, she, it

/ʃi/, /ar/ (obj) /om, am/ he, she, it (obj) /i(t)/

Based on the list above, /ai, a/ „I‟ is only for subject pronouns; /ar/ „her‟ is an object pronoun referring to females; /om/ may refer to „him, her, it‟ in object position. /(h)im/ indicates males or females or even non-human referring to either a subject or an object. The second plural pronoun /unu/ is one pronoun that seems not to be derived from a superstrate source (Aceto, 2006: 213).

According to Roberts, in Nero‟s article, he said that possession or personal pronoun is shown by possessing or juxtaposition of possessor and possessed, not by the genitive marker of English grammar (Nero, 1997: 8).

vi. Pluralization

According to Mc Arthur, there are marking noun plurals by postponed particles not –s. For example, „the three dogs‟ become „the three dog‟

(http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-CARIBBEANENGLISH.html; 1998:

September, 11, 2013). vii. Negation

In most Anglophone Caribbean creole negation, it is designated by a single

preverbal negator. This negator is usually some reflex of “no”, “not”, or “never.” It is

also possible to find a negator based on auxiliary “don‟t” or “ain‟t.” For example,

„she never sing‟and „she ain‟t eat.‟ (Aceto, 2006: 214).

viii. Question Formation Inversion

In contrast, the question-formation between the Standard English and English-based creoles is absolutely different. In the SE forms, a question is formed by inverting the subject (NP) and the auxiliary verb (Huddleston and Pullum, 2002: 95). Meanwhile, in English based on creoles, there is no difference in the syntactic structure between questions and statements. It distinguishes only by rising intonation (Bickerton, 1981: 70). Rising intonation also indicates interrogatives, for example

where she is? You are coming? (Aceto, 2006: 212).

b. Lexicon

According to Schneider, there are some loan words from African languages (Bajan and Jamaican). For example, in Bajan, there are (pia (b) ba(h)„kind of herb,‟ pampalan„fuss, confusion‟; new coinages of the expected types include calques (

eye-water„tears‟, sweet mouth„flatter(er),‟ big-eye„greedy,‟ and have words„quarrel,‟ all of which are Caribbean phrases); idioms (to bad talk „malign,‟ be own-way

„headstrong, disobedient,‟ like somebody bad „ like somebody very much‟);

compounds (golden-apple, increase-peas, slave-lizard); semantic modifications (talk

„have personal or sexual relations,‟ improvement „offspring of livestock reared by a

neighbor,‟ skipper„boss, respectful form of address‟); and newly coined phrasal verbs

(dark up „turn dark,‟ drunk up „become intoxicated,‟ hug up „embrace

enthusiastically,‟ wet up„soak‟) (Schneider, 2007: 224).

In Jamaica, indigenous (covering to a considerable extent the domains of fauna, flora, food, and other cultural practices) ackee, the „national fruit,‟ fufu

„mashed starch-vegetables,‟ nyam„food,‟ susu „whisper,‟ mumu „mute person,idiot,‟ chaka-chaka „disorderly,‟ anancy „spider,‟ obeah „black magic,‟ dopi „spirit,‟ doti

„earth,‟ bammy „cassava bread,‟ backra „white man,‟ busha „overseer,‟ yaba „clay

pot,‟ John Canoe„masked dancer,‟ nana „grandmother‟; compounds (includes some

calques), garden egg „eggplant, or aubergine,‟ bush man, brown rat, galley-wasp

„lizard-like animal,‟ hard-back „beetles,‟ hand-middle „palm,‟ fresh fish vs. salt fish,

fine voice„high-pitched voice,‟ dead stranger „perfect stranger,‟ tall hair„long hair‟;

hybrid formations, macca-fat, obeah man, ground-anancy; derivations,

grudgefulness, stupidness, upliftment; semantic modifications, dandelion, cherry, pear, apple, robin, crow, dumpling – all used for different objects than their European counterparts; brass„penny,‟ hand „hand and arm,‟ foot„foot and leg,‟ etc. (Schneider, 2007: 234).

There are some loan words from French Creole, local Spanish, and Old English. For example, in French Creole, lagniappe is „something extra given by a vendor to a buyer for the sake of goodwill, a bonus,‟ macafouchette „leftovers,‟ ramajay „to warble, twitter, make an extravagant display‟; (local Spanish), alpargat(a) „a sandal with uppers made of woven rope-like material, canvas, or of

intertwined leather thongs,‟ parang „a term for a number of different musical rhythms, song types, and festivities associated with Christmas in Trinidad and parts of Venezuela (from paranda), fruutapang „breadfruit‟ (from fruta „fruit‟ and pan

„bread‟), mampala „an effeminate man‟ (from mampolón „ a common cock, not a

fighting cock), scaveeched fish (from escabeche „pickled fish‟); (Old English and to

usage in Scotland), favor/fieba/„to resemble‟ as in /ʃi fieba you/ „she resembles you‟, vex/beks/ „to anger‟ as in /wamek yu beks so/ „why are you so angry?,‟ beg „to ask‟

as in /a wan beg yu wan tinŋ/ „I want to ask you something‟ (Mc Arthur, 2013; Aceto, 2006: 214-215).

c. Repetition

Wales defines repetition as an ordinary conversation that can be seen as a problem of redundancy, also as a powerful resource of interpersonal involvement that emphasizes the context of conversation. It may also be used to intense our feeling. In literary language, it is not difficult to appreciate the significant of repetition on all linguistic levels since lexical repetition is very obviously drawn to the attention. Therefore, it is often to avoid in favor of variation by synonymy, or substation by pronouns, important means of cohesion (Wales, 2001: 341).

There are some various strategies involving the repetitions elements such as repetition of elements or structures in texts, and word repetitions.

i. Repetitions of Elements or Structure in Clauses

According to Wales, there are some elements or structure repetitions in clauses such as anaphora, epistrophe, and symploce.

Anaphorais “a popular figure of speech involving repetition of the same word

at the beginning of successive clauses, sentences or verses (also known as

epanaphora). It is found in verse and prose of all periods, and can be effectively deployed to underline descriptive and emotional effects. For example, the sentence

„the rain heavily on the roof, and pattered on the ground….The rain fell, heavily, drearily. It was a night of tears” (Wales, 2001: 19).

Epistrophe is a repetition that occurs in the last words in successive lines, clauses or sentences repeated. The repetition of this concept can be seen in the

sentence of Othello‟s ironic „A fine woman! A fair woman! A sweet woman!‟ The

word woman indicates the repetition in the last words of the clauses (Wales, 2001: 132).

Symploce is a repetition that involves of one set of words at the beginning of the series of the sentences in the verse line and in another set of the end of the verse. It is also the combination of anaphora and epistrophe. As the example:

Son: How will mymother of father‟s death

take on with me and ne‟er be satisfied

Father: How will my wife for slaughter of my son shed seas of tears and ne‟er be satisfied.

misthink the king and not be satisfied! (Wales, 2001:380) ii. Word Repetitions

In European languages, there are more permit word repetitions in contrast to lexical and inflectional reduplication as well as pleonastic constructions, for example

in the sentence „this was very, very good, grand-grandfather!‟ (Stolz, 2006: 105-132). 4. The Localized Forms of English

Localized forms of English are important for some countries which become independent. The aim of this process is looking for some cultural language to provide a symbol of national identity. As Crystal said, there is a natural reaction for a country which becomes independent to leave behind the linguistic character spread by the colonial in the past, and to look for indigenous languages to provide a symbol of a new nationhood (Crystal, 2003: 145). When some countries adopt a language from the local alternative culture, they immediately start adapting it as a communication need of the region (Crystal, 2011: 17). According to Crystal, most adaptation refers to vocabulary, such as borrowing words, word formation, word meaning, and idiomatic phrases, for example, in the word „aardwolf‟, „wheelcup‟, „bakkie‟, and „bloedsappe ‟ (Crystal, 2003: 146).

Crystal also said in his article, “the future of Englishes: going local,” “When a

group of people in a country (such as student, teachers, or businessman) switches into English, for whatever reason, the subject –matter of their conversation inevitably incorporates of their local environment” (Crystal, 2011: 19). They used to talk about society (such as market, streets, suburbs, television programs, newspaper, social

media, minority groups, jokes, etc.). “All of this local knowledge is taken for granted

and used in sentences without gloss” (Crystal, 2011: 19).

Every English speaking nation in the world has the similar usage of English to use their distinctiveness for expressing their local identity; it means that the localized English can integrate the English language between the local culture and ethnicity.

5. Theory of New Englishes

Crystal states that New Englishes are the emergence of new varieties of English in the different territories where the language has taken root and change which become a major talking point since 1960‟s (Crystal, 2003: 142).

He also identifies the Englishes of other countries of the inner circle such as Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Caribbean English, and within Britain, Irish, Scots, and Welsh English. The countries of the outer circle, such as, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, often called South Asian English. Another group is in the former British colonies in West Africa, and East Africa. Other varieties have been emerged and noted in the Caribbean in parts of South Asia, such as Singapore (Crystal, 2003: 144).

New Englishes are quite similar to the other dialects that are recognized in other countries, except that they are on international scale to apply whole countries or regions. “Dialect is emerging because they give identity to the groups which own

them” (Crystal, 2003: 144). This context means that dialect can show “identity” of

Nordquist, in his sites, also gives a different definition of New English, that is

“Regional and national varieties of the English language used in places where it is not

the mother tongue of the majority of the population. It has certain formal properties (lexical, phonological, and grammatical) that differ from those of British or American

Standard English” (http://grammar.about. com/od/tz/g/WorldEnglishterm.htm; 2006: September, 18, 2014).

Nordquist, also points out the characteristics of New English according to Platt, Weber, and Ho.

a. It has developed through the education system (possibly even as a medium of education at a certain level), rather than as a first language of the home.

b. It has developed in an area where a native variety of English was not spoken by a majority of the population.

c. It is used for a range of functions (for example, letter-writing, government communications, literature, as a lingua Franca within a country and informal contexts).

d. It has become nativised by developing a subset of rules which mark it as different from American or British English (http://grammar.about.com/od/

tz/g/WorldEnglishterm.htm; 2006: September, 18, 2014).

6. Theory of Three Circles

Braj. Kachru said that English has spread around the world into three circles; they are inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle.

Inner circles refer to „the native English‟ areas, whereas it is a primary language, such as UK, Ireland, USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Outer circles involve the spread of English in „non-native settings,‟ where the language has become English Commonwealth areas and plays as an important

„second language‟ role, such as Singapore, India, African, West Indies and over fifty other territories.

Expanding circles involve the nations which recognize the importance English as an International language, though they do not have a historical background of colonization by British colonial. It includes China, Japan, Korean, Indonesia, Taiwan, Saudi Arabia, etc. In these areas, English is taught as a foreign language (Crystal, 2003: 60).

7. Style variation in English

According to Short, there is some style variation that can influence the language that is dialect, medium, tenor, and domain (Short, 1996: 81).

a. Language Variation: Dialect

Dialectal variation is related to what part of the country of people comes from. There is a tendency for many people to equate dialect with an accent (phonetic variation). Dialect variation also involves variation at any linguistic level such as lexical variation, morphological variation, and grammatical variation (Short, 1996: 81).

b. Language Variation: Medium

Dialect is a semi-permanent characteristic of our language behavior. The kind of language that we produce changes every single day in every moment depending on what we are doing. The most distinction here is between speech and writing in kind of variation according to the medium that is being used. The spoken language is spontaneous and is produced for the external consumption at a very high speed. Meanwhile, in writing, it normally takes place at more leisurely paces and with the opportunity to rework what we say before it is exposed to others. These performance characteristics of speech are considered to be infelicitous and so ironed out. Writing, on the other hand, does not involve short-term memory constraints. Therefore, written sentences are often considerably longer and more complex. Some speech can be more like writing than ordinary conversation (Short, 1996: 83).

c. Language Variation: Tenor

Our language can vary from one moment and context to another in relation to the tenor of discourse. Typically, we choose tenor to change our relationship with the people we are talking to. We will use more technical vocabulary when talking to people in the same understanding, and more accessible, also „common core‟ vocabulary. In other context, we use a direct or informal language with a friend or close family members, and more formal, indirect language with those people who are not close to, or who feel are in a superior position (Short, 1996: 84).

d. Language Variation: Domain

Domain is a language variation used depending on the subject matter and function of the speech. It is one of the easiest kinds of variation to perceive. Topic is also the domain of the speech when we talk about something referring to some current issues (Short, 1996: 85).

8. Diglossia

Ferguson defines diglossia as “a relatively stable language situation, in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include standard or regional standard), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation” (Wardaugh, 1992: 91).

Wardaugh explains that the phenomenon of diglossia is not ephemeral in nature, because in fact, the opposite of this phenomenon appears to be a persistent social and linguistic phenomenon. A characteristic of diglossia is that two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions. One is used for a set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set (Wardaugh, 1992: 91).

Diglossia is widespread phenomenon in the world, well-attested in both spaces (Wardaugh, 1992: 93). According to Ferguson, this phenomenon is likely to come when the natural language of the community and a sizable of body literature are

closely related to and literacy in the community is limited which becomes a small elite and suitable for period time, of the order of several centuries (Wardaugh, 1992: 93).

9. Post-Creole Continuum

Hudson said, “there may be a rather special relationship between creole and

the variety which is the present-day representative of the dominant language on which its parent pidgin was based, if the two coexist in the same country, as they

often do” (Hudson, 1980: 67). This situation is called post – creole continuum. A post-creole continuum arises when there is decreolization, when a society has two languages, a creolized X and standard X, and that standard exerts considerable on the creole. Many people start to improve their creole by using standard models and the whole range varieties which form a continuum, in which it is created with standard X

at the „top‟ and the original creole in the „bottom.‟ There are three terms of continuum

that are acrolect, mesolect, and basilect. The three terms are used to refer the different parts of range. Acrolect is a term that refers to variety that is standard, mesolect refers to variety that is close to standard language or intermediate, and basilect refers to variety that would be least comprehensible to speak standard (Wardaugh, 1992: 80).

Hudson also claims that continuum has two different situations which mark from other linguistic situations. The first is “there are profound differences between the varieties which coexist in the community than one might expect in a community

fragmented by the normal processes of dialect formation” (Hudson, 1980: 68). The

connects basilect and acrolect, allowing speakers only a single linguistic dimension

on which to locate themselves with reference to the rest of society” (Hudson, 1980:

82). A continuum can arise only if the two extreme varieties are varieties of the same language, as with standard X and creolized X (Wardaugh, 1992: 83).

C. Theoretical Framework

The theories mentioned in the review of related theories will help the writer to solve the problem formulation in this study.

For the first problem, the writer uses some theories such as Caribbean

Englishes, New Englishes, Three Circles‟ of Kachru, and also Localized forms of

English. Those theories are used to find out and analyze some linguistic features used

in Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea. The theory of three circles of Kachru and New Englishes is used to explain briefly the emergence of Caribbean English based on the historical background. The theory of Caribbean Englishes is used to analyze the characteristic and features that appear in the speaking of three characters (Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway) in the novel. The localized forms of English are also used to help the writer in analyzing the lexical analysis.

Some theories used to solve the second problem are the theories of Dialect, Language Varieties, and Varieties of English, Style Variation in English, diglossia, and Post-Creole continuum. Those theories help the writer analyze their social factors which influence three characters in using Caribbean English varieties based on

dialect, medium, tenor, and domain, and also analyze the variation or dialect based on the different parts or position of the region.

27 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

This chapter gives information on the research procedure. It contains the information of the object of the study, approach of the study, and the method of study.

A. Object of the Study

The primary source of the study is Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea novel. It had been published on 1982 by Norton & Company, and it consists of 171 pages (including an introduction by Francis Wyndham). The novel tells about love story between a creole girl named Antoinette and an English man as a colonizer named

Edward Rochester. It is also the „answer‟ and „prequel‟ of a madwoman in the attic

or Bertha Mason in Charlotte Brönte‟s Jane Eyre. As Wyndham said in the

Introductionof Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea, that is

“For many years, Jean Rhys has been haunted by the figure of the first Mrs

Rochester – the mad wife in Jane Eyre….of course, literally so: it is in no

sense a pastiche of Charlotte Brontë and exists in its own right, quite

independent of Jane Eyre…Miss Rhys knew about the mad Creole heiresses

in the early nineteenth century, whose dowries were only an additional burden to them: products of an inbred, decadent, expatriate society, resented by the recently freed slaves whose superstitions they shared, they languished uneasily in the oppressive beauty of their tropical surroundings, ripe for

The novel is divided into three parts. The first part tells about Antoinette‟s childhood; the second part tells about her marriage life; and the last part tells about her prison life in Thornfield Hall, England.

The object of the study is the varieties of English spoken by three characters of the novel (Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway). Although they were not the main characters in the novel, they have own manners of speech which are important in the novel. Hence, the writer tries to find out their variety of spoken based on the sociolinguistic background throughout the grammar, lexical, and morphology.

The data are the utterances of three characters taken from part one and part

two. Based on the writer‟s survey, the utterances of Christophine are spread in part

one until part two, while Amélie and Daniel Cosway are spread only in part two. Those two parts are enough to analyze because there are so many utterances that are indicated to the Caribbean English variety.

B. Approach of the Study

This study uses sociolinguistics as the approach of the study to analyze the data. The writer has mentioned some theories used to answer the problem formulation. To answer the first problem, the writer uses the World English theory (three circles of Kachru, New Englishes, localized form of English, and Caribbean Englishes). The theory is used to find out the Caribbean English dialect used by the three characters. Meanwhile, for the second problem formulation, the writer uses the theory of dialect, language varieties, and varieties of English, style variation in

English, diglossia, and post-creole continuum. Those theories are used to analyze

their social influence toward the characters‟ speech.

C. Method of the study 1. Data Collection

In this study, the writer used library studies to gather the data from the utterances of Caribbean English dialect in the novel. The writer obtained the data only from part one and part two from the three parts of the story. The reason why the writer chose those two parts because there were many Caribbean English dialects spoken by the characters in the low class.

From many characters in the novel, the writer chose three characters that are Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway. The reason was that the Caribbean English spoken by them appeared more frequent than other characters in the novel. For Christophine, the data were chosen in part one and part two while Amélie and Daniel Cosway were chosen only in part two.

There were some steps followed by the writer to collect the data. The first step was the writer read the novel. The purpose of this activity was to observe the utterances or spoken used by three characters in the novel.

The second step was the writer observed the information about the Caribbean English dialect by reading some theories and some sources from internet. This activity could help the writer collect the utterances of Caribbean English dialect in the novel.

The third step was, after reading the theories and sources, the writer divided some linguistic features used to collect the data based on the theory. Those features were grammatical, lexical, repetition, and sociolinguistics.

The fourth step was the writer started arranging some criteria of Caribbean English dialect based on features. For the grammatical features, the criteria were their speech that had characteristic form in the copula, tenses (present, past, and future), pronoun, plural form, inflectional third person, inversion in question marks, and negation. For the lexical features, the criteria were the words or utterances that had characteristics in idiomatic expressions, coinages, compounds, semantic modification, religious terms, names of flora and fauna, dialectical terms, and toponyms. For the repetition features, the criteria were the repetition of utterance that was being repeated in giving speeches. For sociolinguistics, the criteria were the use of language that was correlated with dialect, medium, tenor, and domain.

The last step was, after arranging the criteria, the writer started collecting the data by gathering all utterances or speeches of Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway that were indicated as the Caribbean English dialect based on linguistic features into the list.

2. Data Analysis

After collecting the data, the writer could make some steps to analyze each problem. There are two problems that will be analyzed by the writer. The first problem is the kinds of Caribbean English dialects used in the novel and the second

problem is the social factors influenced by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway. Below are some steps that are clarified to answer the problem formulation.

A. First Problem Formulation

a. As the first step for the first problem formulation, the writer collected all utterances of three characters based on her findings. The writer organized all utterances of Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway into the list. In order to get the data classified, each finding of the data was given numbers. Christophine was number 1-60, Amélie was number 1-11, and Daniel Cosway was number 1-27. The purpose of this coding was to make the data easy to classify. In the table, for example, I/7/C means, (I) for the finding of Grammar, (1) for the finding of absence of copula, (1) for the number of data from character utterances, and (A) for Amélie.

b. The second step, the writer classified the utterances based on linguistic

features such as grammar, lexical, and morphology according to Aceto‟s

Caribbean Englishes theory. The writer found some utterances that had criteria based on the features. Those criteria could help the writer analyze the data. The criteria were the utterances and words that had characteristic forms in grammar (copula, tenses (present, past, and future), pronoun, plural form, inflectional third person, inversion in question mark, and negation), lexical (idiomatic expression, coinages, compounds, semantic modification, religious terms, names of flora and fauna, dialectical terms, and toponyms), and repetition.

c. In the third step, the writer organized all the data by using the table and identifying the data based on the criteria. For the grammar analysis (the absence of copula, the use of simple present or future tense to refer past form, the absence of inflectional third person, the inversion of interrogative expression, the use of differences of personal pronouns, the use of singular for plural form of nouns, and the use of multiple negation), the writer compared the data with the Standard English and corrected it into correct sentences based on the Standard English structure. For the lexicon analysis (idiomatic expression, coinages, compounds, semantic modification, religious terms, names of flora and fauna, dialectical terms, and toponyms), the writer classified the words or utterances to the criteria, then identified the meaning and counted the frequency of words and utterances that appeared in the novel. For the repetition analysis (anaphora, episthrophe, symploce, and word repetitions), the writer classified the utterances into the criteria, and then counted the frequency based on the repetition that appeared in the novel. d. The last step, after the whole data were organized, the writer analyzed the

kinds of Caribbean English dialect that appeared in each three characters by grouping their speech into the table of features analysis and divided it into criteria of analysis. The writer used the theory of Caribbean Englishes and theory of Localized of English to rely the first problem. The contributions of

those theories were to make the writer‟s analysis strong enough, especially for

B. Second Problem Formulation

a. The first step that the writer made for the second problem formulation was the writer collected the speech of the three characters into the list.

b. The second step was the writer classified the list of the speech of three characters based on Short‟s theory of stylistics in language variation that was dialect, medium, tenor, and domain. For the dialect analysis, the writer identified their speech based on lexical variation, morphological variation, and grammatical variation. For the medium analysis, the writer presented some examples of three characters speech performances throughout written or oral language such as letters or folklore song. For the tenor analysis, the writer

organized the list of three characters‟ speech with others by using table and counted the situation that appeared. For the domain analysis, the writer organized the data by classifying their speech into the table and identified it

based on Short‟s theory of stylistic variation in English that is language

variation: domain such as topic, and style.

c. The third step was to classify the data. The writer analyzed each of characters‟ speech by analyzing their dialect, medium, tenor and domain. For the dialect analysis, the writer analyzed the dialect of each characters based on lexical variation, morphological variation, and grammatical variation and identified the dialect used by characters based on the data analysis. For the medium analysis, the writer analyzed the differences between oral and written language used by the three characters. For the tenor analysis, the writer

analyzed their addressee spoken to whom they spoke, in what situation, also what language they were used. For the domain analysis, the writer analyzed and identified the topic, and style of their speech.

d. After analyzing the data, the fourth step was to analyze the range of their language use based on their dialect. The writer used the theory of diglossia and post-creole continuum to make this analysis strong. The contributions of those theories were useful to decide their range of speaking based on their region.

35 CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter is divided into two parts. In the first part, the writer answers the first problem, which one is classified as the Caribbean English dialect that is used by

Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway in Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea. In second part, the writer answers the second problem which isthe social factors that influenced the three characters in the novel.

A. The Caribbean English Dialect that is used by Christophine, Amélie, and Daniel Cosway

The Caribbean or West Indies is a part of outer circles „Englishes‟ whereas

English has become an important role because the region is a part of English Commonwealth areas. As a second language, English is used in formal situation such as education and government while local language is used in literature and society(Crystal, 2003:60).

In this novel, Caribbean English dialect has becomea central importance for the three characters on the way how they speak and express themselves. Thus, in this part, the writer focuses on the linguistic features that are used in the novel, especially for three characters utterances.

Table 1. Findings of Features

Characters Grammatical Lexical repetition

Christophine 69 37 36

Amélie 11 3 4

Daniel 24 21 8

Total 104 61 48

Table 1 shows the data description based on the features of three characters. ForChristophine, the writer found 69 data in the grammar, 37 data in the lexicon, and 36 data in the repetition. For Amélie, 11 data in the grammar, 3 datain the lexicon, and 4data occur in the repetition. For Daniel, 24 data occur in the grammar, 21 data in the lexicon, and 8 data in the repetition. The total of each data are: grammar 104 data, lexicon 61 data, and repetition 48 data. In the next part, the writer presents the details of findings features analysis based on grammar, lexicon, and repetition.

I. Grammatical Analysis

Based on the results, the writer found some grammatical features that are used in the novel which is related to the nonstandard characteristic. Above, the writer shows the specific characteristics based on three characters that appear in the novel.

Table 2. Findings of grammar

Characters

Grammatical features copula inflectional

–s

tenses inversion Negation plural form

personal pronoun

Christophine 11 13 24 9 10 1 1

Daniel 1 2 19 - 2 - -

Amélie 2 4 2 2 1 - -

Total 14 19 45 11 13 1 1

Total occurrences 104

Above, the data shows that based on the grammatical features used by the three characters in Jean Rhys‟s Wide Sargasso Sea, 105 grammatical features are found in the novel, which are 14copulas, 19 inflectional third person, 45 tenses, 11 inversions, 13 negations, 1 plural form, and 1 personal pronoun (see appendix). For further explanation in the table 2, the writer presents the analysis of grammar based on the data that is used by the three characters.

don‟t cool me down,‟ (1/D)

Part II, pg. 112 Eat it „Eat it then. Eat it.‟ (12/D)  Part II, pg. 112 Not much time „You haven’t much time. Not much time either

to kiss and love your new wife.‟ (12/D) 

Part II, pg. 113 White man „His son Sandi is like a white man, but more

handsome than any white man,‟ (22/D)  Part II, pg. 114 Talk „She look you straight in the eye and talk sweet

talk.‟ (24/D) 

Part II, pg. 114 Lies „and it‟s lies she tell you. Lies.‟ (24/D)  Part II, pg. 114 Get out „Go then…get out. Now, it‟s me to say it. Get

out. Get out.‟ (26/D) 

Part II, pg. 135 Crying’s no good Crying’s no good with him. I told you before.

Crying’s no good.‟ (31/C)  Part II, pg. 136 I hope you satisfy „I hope you satisfy, I hope you well satisfy,‟

(33/C)



Part II, pg. 136 Thing „She don‟t tell me a thing,‟ said Christophine.

„Not one single thing. Always the same.‟ (34/C)  Part II, pg. 136 I know „….I know something bad happen to her. I

know I must quick and I act.‟ (34/C)  Part II, pg. 136 Provoke „What did I do! Look! Don‟t you provoke me

more than I provoke already. Better not I tell you.‟ (35/C)



Part II, pg. 136 I kiss „And I kiss her. It‟s when I kiss her she cry – not before.‟ (35/C)



Part II, pg. 137 She won’t… „She won’t eat, she won’t talk.‟ (35/C)  Part II, pg. 140 She wake „There are mornings when she can‟t wake, or

when she wake it‟s as if she still sleeping. (44/C)

Part II, pg. 142 Quick „But you marry quick, you leave Jamaica

quick.‟ (46/C) 

Part II, pg. 143 She lose „She lose her son she lose herself.‟ (47/C)  Part II, pg. 143 Question „They tell her she is mad, they act like she is

129 i. Anaphora

Repetitive Expression

Utterances/Expression Frequency I have „I have right to my rest. I have my house

that your mother give me so long ago and I have my garden and my son to work for me.

3

My… „I have my garden and my son to work for

me.‟ 2

They laugh at… „It‟s not you they laugh at if you go, they

laugh at him.‟ 2

If you love them

they…/you…. „don‟t If you love them they treat you bad, if you love them they after you night and day bothering your soul case out.‟

2

All… „All women, all colours, nothing but fools.‟ 2

No „No doudou. No.‟ 2

On… „Plenty people fasten bad words on you and

on your mother.‟ 2

I know „I know it. I know who is talking and what

they say.‟ 2

He… „even if he love money, but he fear so many stories he don‟t know what to believe. That is why he keep away.‟

4

Don’t … „Don’t bawl at the man and don’t make crazy faces. Don’t cry either.‟

3 Some people say.. „Some people say yes, some people say no.‟ 2 I take „When I hear you coming I take a good shot

of rum, and I take a glass of water…‟ 2

Eat it „Eat it then. Eat it.‟ 2

I know „….I know something bad happen to her. I know I must quick and I act.‟ 2 I kiss „And I kiss her. It‟s when I kiss her she cry

–not before.‟ 2

She won’t… „She won’t eat, she won’ttalk.‟ 2 She lose „She lose her son she lose herself.‟ 2

ii. Epistrophe Repetitive

Expression

Utterances/Expression Frequency

Don’t like „Too besides the young master don’t like me, and perhaps I don’t likehim so much.‟

2 Once more „Smile like that once more, just once more,‟ 2 A hard thing „You ask me a hard thing; I tell you a hard

thing,‟ 2

….away „When you get away, stay away.‟ 2 Love you „Hush up; if the man don‟t love you, I can‟t

make him love you.‟ 2

It foolishness „If béké say it foolishness, then it

foolishness.‟ 2

Talk „She look you straight in the eye and talk

sweet talk.‟ 2

Thing „She don‟t tell me a thing,‟ said Christophine. „Not one single thing. Always the same.‟

2

Quick „But you marry quick, you leave Jamaica

iii. Symploce

Repetitive Expression Utterances/Expression Frequency

Talk „Talk, talk their lying talk.‟ 3

I mash „…and I mash your face like I mash

plaintain.‟ 2

I give you

bellyache…./ Perhaps you….

„I give you bellyache like you never see bellyache. Perhaps you lie a long time with the bellyache I give you. Perhaps you don‟t get up again with the bellyache I give you.‟

5

I don’t… /know…./I

see… „know, I I don’t say know what I don’t believe, I say I see with my eyes I don’t and I never see it.‟

7

some…/money…/place „Besides I ask myself is this place like they tell us? Some say one thing, some different… and they thief your money….You have money in your pocket, you look again and bam! No money….If there is place at all, I never see it, that is one thing sure.‟

6

I can make him „Even if I can make him come to your bed, I cannot make him love you.‟ 2

Your…like... „Your face like dead woman and your eyes red like soucriant.‟

4 A preacher „They say one time he was a preacher in

Barbados, he talk like a preacher,‟ 2 A coloured man „she won‟t marry with a coloured man

even though he don‟t like a coloured man.‟

2

Cool me down „I take a glass of water to cool me down, but it don‟t cool me down,‟ 2 Not much time „You haven’t much time. Not much

time either to kiss and love your new wife.‟

2

White man „His son Sandi is like a white man, but more handsome than any white man,‟ 2 Lies „and it‟s lies she tell you. Lies.‟ 2 Get out „Go then…get out. Now, it‟s me to say it.

Get out. Get out.‟ 3

C_{rying’s no good} Crying’s no good with him. I told you before. Crying’s no good.‟

iv. Word Repetition

I hope you satisfy „I hope you satisfy, I hope you well

satisfy,‟ 2

Provoke „What did I do! Look! Don‟t you provoke me more than I provoke already. Better not I tell you.‟

2

She wake „There are mornings when she can‟t wake, or when she wake it‟s as if she still sleeping.

2

Repetitive Expression Utterances/Expression Frequency Drink drink „Drink drink their yellow horse piss…‟ 2

Yes master „Yes master, yes master.‟ 2 Bad, bad „Bad, bad trouble come when béké

meddle with that.‟ 2

Question „They tell her she is mad, they act like she is mad. Question, question.‟ 2