Theoretical Review REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter contains all review of related literature used in this thesis. It discusses the theoretical review and theoretical framework. In the theoretical review, the writer presents theories of literature related to the problem formulation. They are theory of critical approach to literature, theory of character, theory of characterization, theory of comparative literature, theory of psychology and also theory of motivation. Meanwhile, in the theoretical framework reviews some theories to give the guidance in focusing the analysis of the subject in this study.

2.1 Theoretical Review

This part consists of some theories related to literature that are important to support the analysis in this study. They are theory of critical approaches to literature, theory of character, theory of characterization, theory of psychology and theory of motivation.

2.1.1 Theory of Critical Approaches to Literature

Mary Rohrberger and Samuel H. Woods said, “To have a reasonable judgment, we need to employ a means, which is called critical approach” 3. It will lead the readers to have a better understanding of the nature, function, and positive values. There are five kinds of critical approaches, namely, formalist approach, sociocultural-historical approach, biographical aaproach, mythopoeic approach and psychological approach. The writer only uses one of the approaches stated above. It is psychological approach. Rohrberger and Woods state that this approach leads us to analyze the novel from psychological points of view of human beings. That is from the organization of thought and feelings of the character. Moreover, it also explaining and understanding the human motivation 13. Since this study aims at analyzing Firdaus and Maria’s motivation in becoming a prostitute, so that psychological approach is used in terms of the psychological aspects to analyze their motivation.

2.1.2 Theory of Character

A character plays an important role in a literary work such as in a novel. Every character that is described by the author in his or her work is the reflection of people in real life as it is stated by Holman and Hormon 81. In addition, Abrams defines characters as the person presented in a dramatic or narrative work who are interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral, dispositional and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say, the dialogue and by what they do, the action. The grounds in the characters’ temperament, desires, and moral nature for their speech and actions are called their motivation 20. Another psychologist, Henkle, points out that character can be divided into 2 parts. The first one is major character and the second one is secondary character 87. Major character is the most significant characters in a novel. They can be PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI identified through the complexity of their characterization, the attention given by certain figures and the personal intensity that a character seems to transmit. The major characters will completely need the reader’s fullest attention because they perform a key structural function 178-179. Different from major character, Henkle says that secondary character is a character who serves function that is more restricted. He performs and responds in more limited functions and may be less sophisticated; therefore their response to experience is less complex and less refreshing 180-181.

2.1.3 Theory of Characterization

According to Barnet and Berman characterization or personality is defined, as in fiction by what the characters do or by what they say, by what others say about them and by the setting in which they move 77. We can say that the participations of those things may help the readers understand what kind of character he or she in the novel. Thus, the participants of those things are very important in knowing the personality of each character in the novel. The theory above supported by Murphy who illustrates nine ways in presenting the characters to make them understandable and to come alive for the readers. First, personal description. It means that the author can describe a person’s appearance and clothes 161. Second, characters as seen by another. Instead of describing a character directly the author can describe him through the eyes and opinion of another. The reader gets, as it were, a reflected image 161- 162. Third, speech which an important way that may be used to describe a PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI character. The author can give us insight into the character of one of the person in the book through what the person says. Whenever a person speaks, has conversation with others and puts forward an opinion, he is giving us some clues to his character 163-166. Another way to presents the character stated by Murphy is past life. In a story sometimes, the plot jump to the past event and it also involves the past life of the character. He stated: By letting the reader learn something about a person’s past life the author can give us a clue to events the have helped to shape a person’s character. This can be done by direct comment by the author, through the person’s thought, through his conversation or through the medium of another person 167. Next, conversation of others. The author can also give us clues to a person’s character through the conversation of other people and the things they say about him 167-168. Reaction is also one of the nine ways to present the characters. The author can give us a person’s character by letting us to know how the person reacts to various situations and events 169. Direct comment, thought, and mannerism also including in nine ways to present the characters. It is also stated by Murphy. Direct comment is the author can describe or give comment on a person’s character directly 170. Thought is very important aspect to know the motivation behind the person’s actions. The author can give us direct knowledge of what a person is thinking about. In this aspect, he is able to do what we cannot do in real life. He can tell us what different people are thinking 171. Then, Mannerism is the way in which the author can describe a person’s mannerism, habits or idiosyncrasies, which may also tell us something about his character 171.

2.1.4 Theory of Comparative Literature

Tieghem in Bassnett, states that comparative literature should involve the study of two elements 27. In addition, Holman and Harmon define comparative literature as follows: Comparative study is the study of literatures of different their relationships. In the 19 th century, concurrently with the beginning of the comparative study of religion and mythology, various European scholars began to develop theories and methods for the comparative study of literatures of different languages and nationalities 104. Those theories above are also supported by Remak in Basnett. He clarifies comparative literature as follows: Comparative literature is the study of literature beyond the confines of one particular country, and the study of the relationships between literature on the one hand, and other areas of knowledge and belief, such as the arts e.g. painting, sculpture, architecture, music, philosophy, history, the social sciences e.g. politics, economics, sociology, the sciences, religion, etc., on the other. In brief, it is the comparison of one literature with another or others, and the comparison of literature with other spheres of human expression 31.

2.1.5 Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation

In this part, the writer would like to discuss psychoanalytic theory proposed by Freud because it has relation with this study that is about someone’s motivation. The writer will only use psychoanalytic theory of motivation since there are a lot of psychological concepts in this theory. Freud in Weiner describes the psychoanalytic theory that offers a concept of motivated behaviors. The basic principles are two central concepts namely, homeostasis and hedonism 10. Homeostasis is a tendency to maintain internal equilibrium while hedonism is a principle that pleasure and happiness are the goal of life. Homeostasis governs behaviors and pleasure is the result of being in equilibrium where all the goals are satisfied. Activity then indicates dissatisfaction because satisfied individual does not pursue any stimulation 11. Freud points out that all psychological works need energy. These concepts are pertinent to this concept. The first is conservation of energy. It says that there is a constant amount of energy in human body. Therefore, if energy is spent for one function, it cannot be used for other functions. The second is entropy. It refers to energy that is not available or doing work 11. Freud states that the third concept is the concept of kinetic or bound or potential energy. The term “cathexis” refers to bound energy. Energy is bound when it is attached to an object that is desires and has not been attained. If the goal is fulfilled, this energy is transferred into free potential energy 11-12. All psychological events can be predicted. Yet we cannot predict events, we can only interpret the past. Freud applied this concept of psychological determinism to pathological phenomena such as hysteria and obsession and to normal behaviors that are humors, slip of the tongue and dreams 13. In addition, he also argued that those behaviors had the same function in common. This theory also states the concept of the structure of personality. There are three components of personality. They are id, ego, and superego. Each operated in unique function s PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI well as distinct process. This concept can be used to explain that behaviors are governed by needs, rationality and ideals 13-14. First, the id. Freud states that it is the first system within a person. The contents of the id are unconscious. It is the source of all psychological energy. It functions to release internal tension immediately. Immediate pleasure is the goal and achieved through homeostatic process and tension reduction 14. Moreover he says that id operates based on hedonism doctrine. There are two processes of how the id accomplishes its goal. These two processes are reflex action and the primary process. Reflex actions are automatic reactions like sneezing and blinking which reduce tension immediately while the primary process discharge tension by an image of an object 14-15. Second, the ego. According to Freud, immediate gratification usually leads to pain, therefore it is necessary to be delayed. The ego does it. It serves the id to obtain pleasure and to reduce tension as well as involves reality demand 15. The ego is governed by reality principle and operates by means of the secondary process. The reality principle prevents the discharge of tension until an appropriate object for the wish fulfillment is discovered. The secondary process is realistic, logic, time oriented and distinctive between reality and unreality thinking. The ego formulates a plan for the satisfaction of the needs and tests this plan to see whether it works or not for example a hungry person thinks where he may find foods and look for it that place later. Its contents are conscious mostly some of them are preconscious 16. Third, the super-ego. It is called a one’s conscious. It is the internalized values in one self. Superego has two main functions. These are to reward individual for acceptable behaviors and to punish actions that are not socially sanctioned. The superego always fights against unacceptable impulse 16. Here, Freud says that those are the components of the structure of personality. The ego inhibits the striving of the id. Yet it must satisfy the id demand. Ego is the highest structure of a person that responsible for final behavioral decisions. Ego is also said to be the executive agency 16-17. Freud also defines that Homeostasis and hedonism are also related to the structure of personality. The energy for behavior stores in the id. The duty of the ego is to prevent immediate gratification especially if it leads to pain. Later the ego creates counter cathexis which gets id of the threatening wish from consciousness. There is always a conflict between the id cathexis and the ego counter cathexis for counter cathexis opposes goal attainment. The existence of this conflict between the personal demands and the society demands 17. Freud proposed four models of the motivated behavior. These four models come from the same idea that behavior is derived from wishes and that the initiate action to reduce instinctual urges 18. The first is the primary model of action which is based on the hedonism principle. The model does not account for either thought process or the intervention of the physic structure. It is called the reflex are model with input-output relation 19. The second is the primary model of thought. It is the same as the previous that is initiated by a wish but the object to satisfy the wish is absent. Gratification is obtained by hallucinating the object. In PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI the first model, the ego that aids the organism to adapt the environment does not function. They only coordinate wishes with immediate gratification 20. Regarding the fact that immediate gratification may result in more pain that pleasure. Freud formulates the other two models, which involves the ego. The ego delays and alters the direction of behaviors. The third model is what is called secondary model of action. It includes delay mechanism by the ego. The last model is secondary model of thought. This model involves thoughts and plans to attain the goal 20-21.

2.1.6 Theory of Motivation

There are so many factors make a person to do an action because of his her motivation. In this thesis, the writer would like to analyze the motivation of Firdaus and Maria in becoming a prostitute. Before we discuss it further, it is better if we know what a motivation is. According Murray, motivation is a desire. Motivation is always related to behavior because it is involved in all kinds of behaviors: learning, performing, perceiving, attending, remembering, forgetting, thinking, creating, and feeling. Motivation also affects someone’s behavior because motivation may function as incentive for someone to behave in a certain manner 7. Another researcher, Petri, states; “motivation is the concept used when we describe the process within an organism to initiate” 3. Furthermore, Smith defines; “motivation as an internal process that influences the direction, persistence and vigor of goal directed behavior.” According to him, motivation is seen as an internal factor that moves human being to keep their effort and their goal in order to prevent them from loosing their ways to achieve their goals. Motivation also makes human being behave in a specific behavior that supports them in the process of achieving their goals 282. Another researcher, Maslow says; “People conduct action to fulfill their needs.” He also says that man is initially motivated by a series of basic needs; as these are satisfied, he moves toward the level of the higher needs and becomes motivated by them 47. The basic needs according to Maslow are physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization. These basic needs called the hierarchy of needs. . Figure 1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. First level is physiological needs. It is the lowest need. Maslow argues; “physiological needs are adequately met for most people in our society.” When these needs are met, the next need of the hierarchy emerges as a dominant force in PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI controlling and directing behavior, for example hunger and thirst and also the basic requirement for other needs 38. Second level is safety needs. It is the need to be secure and out of danger. Higher needs become unimportant when one’s life is endangered, and our behavior reflects our attempts to remain secure 39. Moreover, Maslow felt that working of the safety needs could also be seen in people’s preference for familiar surroundings, secure jobs, savings accounts, and insurance. In no satisfactory of these needs, one reacts if one was in a threatening situation obsessive –compulsive neuroses 40. The third level is Love or belongingness needs. These needs involve a hunger for affectionate with others, a need to feel part of group, or a feeling that one “belongs” 40. The love needs require both the receiving and giving of love- love from another and someone to love. There are some ways to gain a sense of belonging needs. Marriage, a job, or admission to a select group such as a fraternity, sorority, or civic group can serve this need. The lack of these needs cause behavior maladjustment 41. The forth level is esteem needs. There are two subcategories of these needs namely, a need for self-esteem and a need for esteem from others. Maslow explains those two terms. He says: The need for self-esteem motivates the individual to strive for achievement, strength, confidence, independence, and freedom. The related need of esteem from others involves a desire for reputation, status, recognition, appreciation by others of one’s abilities, and a feeling of importance 42. When the esteem needs are satisfied, one has feelings of self-confidence and self- worth and sees oneself as having a purpose in the world. Lack of esteem leads the individual to feel inconsequential and to have little self-worth 42. The last level is self-actualization. The behavior of self-actualized person is motivated by anew set of needs, which Maslow termed the being need B- motivation or metamotivation. This B-motivates is values such as truth, honesty, beauty, and goodness, and they provide meaning to the life of the self-actualized individual. This individual is motivated to become what he is capable of becoming. A self-actualized person is not motivated by deficiencies anymore and is stimulated to test his abilities 305. According to Maslow, only few people in the society can reach self-actualization for it takes really much time. Most people who can reach are over sixty years old 305-306. The first four steps on Maslow’s hierarchy constitute the needs that must be satisfied before one reaches the final level, the level of self-actualization. It is called deprivation motivation. All behaviors related to those needs are motivated by attempts to deprive those needs. Those four needs are called deprivation motivation D-motivation 306. Maslow pointed out that the order of the hierarchy could be applied to some people. Common exception that for other people esteems needs precede love needs. Actually, people are unaware of the needs hierarchy as it is unconscious 307.

2.2 Theoretical Framework