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8 The Stimuli
Short, William, and Christie describe listening to a person speaking will improve the listening retention and concentration rather than a videotape. This is
due to an interesting concept called “social presence,” which is the physical presence of another human being is in itself stimulating as cited in Brownell,
1996, p. 23. Although we know that the addition of visual stimuli improve some listening behaviors, the accuracy of comprehension might decrease with added
stimuli. In addition, when verbal and visual messages conflicted, most people will choose the visual channel Leathers, 1979.
b. Learning Media
Educational media and instructional design develop along separate but converging pathways. Choosing a medium must be adjusted to the instructional
design. These are the theories of learning media.
1 Definition of Learning Media
Smaldino, Lowther, and Russell 2012 state that medium refer to anything that carries information between a source and receiver. In addition, they state if
those messages contained information with an instructional purpose, they are considered as educational media. Media that are used in the instructional design
are selected by the condition of objectives, content, and instructional methods. Kemp 1980: 7 states that media are not only used as supplementary to, or in
support of, instruction, but are the instructional input itself. It will give the most effective and efficient learning.
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15 As stated by Roblyer and Edward 2000, there are various forms of
media. Media can be in a form of pictures, sound, motion video, animation, or text items combine in a product whose purpose is to communicate information. The
impact of using media in education also varies Roblyer Edward, 2000:166. By using media, students can have motivation to learn, since most people enjoy using
them. Media are also flexible , people can draw on such diverse tools that they truly offer something to students who excell in intelligence. Because of that
flexibility, the media can also develop and improve students’ creativity and
critical thinking skills. The research also shows that various form of media and their respective selection and utilization processes directly have impact to what
learners perceive and how they retain and recall information Kozma, 1991.
2 Factors in Media Selection
As stated by Gagne and Briggs 1979, a stimulus is the main factor in selecting learning media. Types of stimulus is needed to be considered in terms of
the specific instructional events being planned. Choice of stimuli might vary considerably even within a single lesson for a group of learners. Some typical
stimulus choices for various instructional events as follows:
Table 2.1 Typical Stimulus Choices for Instructional Events Gagne and Briggs, 1979
Instructional Event Type of Stimulus
a. Gaining attention
Unusual sounds; startling visual b.
Information about objective
Spoken words; real objects
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Instructional Event Type of Stimulus
c. Guiding learning
Spoken or written words; demonstration; sample products or
performance d.
Providing feedback Spoken or written words
e. Enhancing retention and
transfer Variety of media and examples
Gagne and Briggs 1979 states that there are some media that can be chosen based on the stimuli given. The teachers can choose the media they like as
long as it is appropriate for students. The candidate media for the types of stimuli are as follows.
Table 2.2 Candidate Media for the Types of Stimuli
Type of Stimuli Candidate Media
a. Unusual sounds; visual
Teacher, tape recorder, pictures b.
Spoken words; real objects
Teacher, tape recorder, various objects c.
demonstration; sample products
Teacher, films, videotape, visiting experts; sample themes written by
students d.
Spoken or written words
Teacher, tape recorder, books, chalkboard
e. Varieties of
generalization Real objects of varying color, size,
shape, etc., pictures of objects, verbal problem situation
3. Instructional Design
