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Instructional Event Type of Stimulus
c. Guiding learning
Spoken or written words; demonstration; sample products or
performance d.
Providing feedback Spoken or written words
e. Enhancing retention and
transfer Variety of media and examples
Gagne and Briggs 1979 states that there are some media that can be chosen based on the stimuli given. The teachers can choose the media they like as
long as it is appropriate for students. The candidate media for the types of stimuli are as follows.
Table 2.2 Candidate Media for the Types of Stimuli
Type of Stimuli Candidate Media
a. Unusual sounds; visual
Teacher, tape recorder, pictures b.
Spoken words; real objects
Teacher, tape recorder, various objects c.
demonstration; sample products
Teacher, films, videotape, visiting experts; sample themes written by
students d.
Spoken or written words
Teacher, tape recorder, books, chalkboard
e. Varieties of
generalization Real objects of varying color, size,
shape, etc., pictures of objects, verbal problem situation
3. Instructional Design
Instructional design is “the systematic and reflective process of translating
principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials,
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Instructional design can not be separated from learning. As stated by Newby 2000, learning is a process of acquiring new knowledge and skills through the
interdependent sub-processes of planning, implementation, and evaluation. While instruction is the process of helping students learn through the deliberate
arrangement of information, activities, methods, and media. Gagne and Briggs 1979 also state that instruction is a human undertaking whose purpose is to help
people learn. Instruction is a set of events which affects learners in such a way that learning is facilitated. So it can be concluded that the instructional design is a
process of developing plans for instruction through practical application of theoretical principles.
In order to create instructional design, instructional technology is needed. Instructional technology for teaching and learning has an important role to
increase learning by designing lessons that use instructional technology, including computers and other media Newby, 2000. Instructional technology also has been
defined as “applying scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical tasks of teaching and learning” Heinich, Molenda, Russel, 1993, p. 16. Thus,
instructional technology interpreted and implemented basic research of human ’s
learning to generate instructional design principles and processes that teachers and students cannot apply to increase learning effectiveness.
To design an instruction, there are three basic elements that teacher must pay attention to Kemp, 1980: 6. The first basic element is the objective. The
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must learn from a study. The second is the teaching and learning strategies in which teachers must set a plan to conduct the learning process. The procedures
and the resources are required to accomplish the learning. The last one is the evaluation. The evaluation has an important role in seeing the first step of this
element, which is objective, whether it has been reached or not.
4. Electronic Learning
