e. be, have, and do. In this latter capacity, they are responsible for the

20 function to introduce referring expressions p. 46

1.1.1.1.6.3. Some, many, and several

Quantifiers some, many, several function to denote quantity p. 46. According to Krohn 1971, some can be used together with both count nouns as plural to mean an indefinite number of countable things and noncount nouns to mean an indefinite quantity of something not countable p. 51.

1.1.1.1.7. Auxiliary Aux

Auxiliary, popularly known as ‘helping verbs’, are restricted both in form and in distribution. Many of them, such as cancould and shallshould, have only two forms to indicate present and past. They don’t have any ing-form for instance canning or shalling. In addition, they can never serve as main verbs; they must always occur with a lexical verb. There are two kinds of auxiliary verb: primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries. Primary auxiliary is capable of acting both as auxiliaries and as lexical verbs

i.e. be, have, and do. In this latter capacity, they are responsible for the

generation of both the progressive and perfect aspect and the passive voice. The second kind, the modals, as their name suggests, are responsible for the particular mood of the verb phrase. They serve to indicate such moods as permission cancould, intention will, would, and compulsion must. Interestingly, where they occur in verb phrase, they are subject to a fixed order: e.g. She could have been being beaten mood aspect voice lexical verb 21

1.1.1.1.8. Conjunctions Con

Conjunctions are “words that join sentences or parts of sentences” Roberts, 1964, p. 285. He mentions that there are two main kinds of conjunctions: coordinating i.e. and, but, and or and subordinating e.g. if, when. The first sort links together units that are equal status. The second involve a more complex relationship between units being joined, where one is thought to be subordinate to, i.e. dependent to the other.

1.1.1.1.9. Degree words

Degree words belong to functional categories as “such elements generally have meanings that are harder to define and paraphrase than those of lexical categories” O’Grady, 1997, p. 157. Some examples of degree words are as follows. Very means “to a high degree”, e.g. John is very tired. Therefore, he can’t study Krohn, 1971, p. 139. So means “to the extent of degree” e.g. so far from Hornby, 1974, p. 817 Too means “excessive”, e.g. John is too tired to study. Too tired to study means that “to study” is something that will not or did not, does not, or should not happen. Very cannot be used in this situation Krohn, 1971, p. 139. Enough means “sufficient”. It follows the adjectives or adverb that it modifies, as in John is old enough to vote Krohn, 1971, p. 139, precedes a 22 noun, as in I have enough strength to lift that box, or follows a noun, as in I have strength enough to lift that box Azar, 1989, p. 177. More , according to Hornby 1974, means “greater in number, quantity, quality, degree, size, etc” p. 549. Its usage description is seen in page 19.

2.1.4.2 Phrase Structures

According to Roberts 1964, a phrase is a group of words or a single word p. 10. He further mentions that there are five kinds of phrases; they are as follows, prepositional phrases, participial phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, and appositive phrases p. 10. Firstly, a prepositional phrase is “a group of words beginning with a preposition and usually ending with a noun or pronoun” p. 37, e.g. The rapidly developing storm kept small boats in port. Secondly, a participial phrase, is “a phrase containing a participle and any complements or modifiers it may have” p. 42, e.g. Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river bank. Thirdly, Thirdly, a gerund phrase, is “a phrase consisting a verbal noun and any complements or modifiers it may have” p. 46, e.g. Carrying coals to Newcastle is a traditional example of the unnecessary. Fourthly, an infinitive phrase, “consists of an infinitive and any complements or modifiers it may have” p. 46 e.g. We intend to leave early. Lastly, an appositive, is “a noun or pronoun-often with modifiers-set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it” p. 50, e.g. Your friend Tina is in town. 23

2.1.4.3 Sentence Structures

The largest unit of syntactic analysis is the sentence S Roberts, 1964, p. 1. He further defines sentences into two: kernel sentences and transform. He describes kernel sentences as “elementary sentences of the language, the stuff from which ‘all else’ is made”, while transforms as the “’all else’ structure” drawn from the kernel to produce more complicated structures of English sentences p. 1. Traditionally, a kernel sentence contains two main parts: noun phrase NP, functioning as subject, and verb Phrase VP, functioning as predicate. Warriner 1982 writes that how long the subject or predicate is, it always becomes the core of sentence or utterance-an essential part p. 24. Sentences have their head an abstract category dubbed ‘infl’, short for inflection, which indicates the sentence’s tense e.g. they are either past or non-past.

2.1.4.4 Complement Options

According to Downing and Locke 1992, complements may occur as “obligatory or nuclear” elements and as “optional or non-nuclear” elements p. 26. The obligatory or nuclear constituents, according to Downing and Locke 1992 are called complements, while the optional or non-nuclear constituents are called adjuncts p. 26. Downing and Locke 1992 mention that complements are typically realized by Nominal Groups NGs and Adjectival Groups AdjGs, whereas Adjuncts are typically realized by Adverbial Groups AdvGs and Prepositional Groups PrepGs p. 26. For example A PrepG realizes Adjuncts at 24 the weekend in Tom runs at the weekend and a Predicator Complement to work in Tom runs to work. Downing and Locke 1992 mention that complements play as subject complements and object complements pp 50-53. The subject complements which are realized by Adjectival Groups is, according to Downing Locke 1992, “the obligatory constituent which follows a copular verb and which cannot be made Subject in a passive clause” p. 50, e.g. That journey was a mistake. There are verbs used to link the subject to its complements; they are be, seem, transition become, go, grow, turn, and perception sound, smell, look. Secondly, object complement is “the constituent which completes the prediction when the verb chosen leads us to specify sme characteristics of the direct object” Downing Locke, 1992, p. 53. According to Downing and Locke 1992, the object complement, which is realized by nominal group, is linked in an intensive relationship with the direct object, though it is not linked by a copula, e.g. Circumstances have made the brothers enemies p. 53.

2.1.4.5 Transformations

According to O’Grady 1997, transformational analysis is claiming that there are two levels of syntactic structure; the first level is called deep structure and the second level, called surface structure, it results from applying whatever transformations are appropriate for the sentences in question p. 203. He mentions that the surface structure for the question pattern is formed by applying the inversion transformation. According to O’Grady 1997, question structures 25 are built up in two distinct levels of syntactic structure p. 203. The first step is forming a structure in which the auxiliary takes its normal position in inflection within Complement Phrase CP, that is between subject and the Verb Phrase VP. The second step involves transformation. This step is known as inversion, where it moves an element from the normal inflection position to the head Complementizer position of CP p. 203 Figure 2.2 Surface structure for Which car should the man repair? Inflection moves to the C position and the WH phrase moves to the specifier position under CP Transformation in interrogative involves three subdivisions, including inversion in yes-no questions, WH-movement, and do-insertion O’Grady, 1997, pp. 203-212. According to O’Grady 1997, the first, yesno question, involves an auxiliary inversion; that is to inverse the auxiliary form the inflection position to head Complementizers C position of Complement Phrase CP. According to O’Grady 1997, the second, WH-movement, requires a transformation that will move the WH-phrase from normal position to the specifier position under CP. The process of WH-movement and auxiliary inversion can be seen in Figure 2.2. The last is do insertion. According to O’Grady 1997, it occurs if the inflection in the sentences contains only an abstract i.e. invisible tense marker, 26 there is nothing for the inversion transformation to move p. 209. He mentions that English circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do; it applies do to be inserted into sentence that do not already have an auxiliary verb, thereby making inversion possible. He further mentions that it inserts interrogative do into an empty inflection position O’Grady, 1997, p. 210. The do insertion and its inversion can be seen in Figure 2.3 Figure 2.3 Surface tructure for Do those birds sing? Do is inserted in inflection position and is inversed to C position under CP

2.1.4.6 Coordination Structures

A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or O’Grady, 1997, p. 222. It is known as coordination . O’Grady 1997 mentions four important properties that coordination exhibits. First, there is no limit on the number of coordination categories that can appear prior to the conjunction, e.g. [ NP A man, a boy, a cat, and a hamster] got into the car p. 233. Second, a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated, e.g. [ P up] and [ P down] the stairs p. 233. 27 Third, coordinated categories must be the same of the same type, e.g. [ VP go to the library] and [ VP read a book] p. 222. Finally, the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. Hence, if VPs are coordinated, the coordinate structure is a VP, if NPs are coordinated, the coordinate structure is an NP; and so on, e.g. [ VP read a book] or [ VP walk the dog ] p. 224.

2.1.4.7 Relative Clause

Azar 1989 mentions that an adjective clause is ‘a dependant clause that modifies a noun, it describes, identifies, or gives further information about a noun” p . 238. O’Grady 1997 believes relative clause resemble embedded WH- question in two respects. First, it begins with a WH word such as who or which. Second, there is an empty position within a sentence from which the WH phrase has apparently been moved. The first step in the formation of the relative clause involves the deep structure, e.g. Sue may know the man Bob criticized who. Here, the WH word who plays as complement of the verb criticize since it corresponds to the person who is criticized. The next step is the application of the WH movement. The sentence then becomes Sue may know the man whom Bob criticized pp. 227-228.

2.1.4.8 Passive Structures

Sentences consist of active and passive. O’Grady 1997 believes, in order to describe the differences and similarities between these two sentences, it is 28 necessary to distinguish between the agent the doer of the action designated by the verb and the theme the entity directly affected by the action p. 229. For example a The thieves took the painting and b The painting was taken by the thieves. The a sentence is called active because the agent is encoded as subject of the sentence while the b sentence is called passive in the recognition of the fact that the theme is encoded as subject. O’Grady 1997 mentions three distinctive properties in English passive. “Passive construction involves a major reduction in the importance of the agent; indeed, whereas the agent serves as subject of an active clause, it is not expressed at all in the vast majority of passive sentences in English” p. 190. “Some other NP-usually the direct object of the corresponding active sentence- functions as subject in the passive sentence p. 190. “Verbs that cannot occur with a direct object NP in an active sentence typically cannot occur in a passive sentence p. 190. According to Azar 1989, to form a passive sentence, direct object from active sentence must be repositioned as the subject and the verb must be reformed to be past participle p. 120.

2.1.4.9 Tag Questions

According to Azar 1989, tag question is an additional question after a sentence to seek agreement p. A16. Krohn 1971 mentions the procedure of tagging into three steps. Firstly, negative tag questions follows affirmative statements, or in the contrary, affirmative tag questions follow negative 29 statements. Secondly, if a form of be or an auxiliary e.g. can, has, does occurs in the statement part, it is repeated in the tag. Thirdly, if there is no auxiliary in the first part, do or does or do not or does not appears in the tag p. 267. For examples John is here, isn’t it? and Mary isn’t here, is she? and the response are Yes, he is and No, he isn’t Krohn, 1971, p. 267.

2.1.4.10 Preposition

Burton 1982 states that preposition means “placed before” p. 135. He mentions that it is used with noun or pronoun to show relationship between persons or things or actions p. 135. He further mentions preposition to be followed by noun or pronoun as accusative or objective case p. 135. For example The mayor sent a letter to him and me. It, indeed, can be followed by personal pronoun, e.g. He sent a message to me. 2.1.4.11 Expletive ‘There’ The expletive there is different from the adverb there, which is used to indicate place Krohn, 1971, p. 148. For example There’s a book there. There at the beginning functions as expletive, while there at the end functions as an adverbial of place Krohn, 1971, p. 148.

2.2 Theoretical Framework