Syntactic and morphological errors analysis in spoken English of micro teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011.

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SYNTACTIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL ERRORS ANALYSIS

IN SPOKEN ENGLISH OF MICRO TEACHING STUDENTS

OF THE ACADEMIC YEAR 2010/2011

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fufillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Fransiska Novi Kartikasari Student Number : 071214035

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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ABSTRACT

Kartikasari, Fransiska Novi (2012). Syntactic and Morphological Errors Analysis in Spoken English of Micro Teaching Students of the Academic Year 2010/2011. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

One aspect to show quality in the mastery of English is grammar accuracy. As mentioned in Write Well, Improving Writing Skills, Bram (1995) mentions that English Department students must follow the rules of English standard and avoid making any grammatical errors whenever they speak or write (p. 54). However, in the learning development itself, ELESP students as members of English department often produce ungrammatical utterances. Contrastively, as English teachers, they are supposed to grasp the knowledge of English grammar and to be models of responsible English users; that is to use it accurately, appropriately, and meaningfully. Therefore, it is essential to find out some types of errors they produce as well as the possible sources of errors.

There were two research questions presented in this research, namely (1) what are the types of syntactic and morphological errors produced by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011? and (2) what are the possible causes of errors made by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011?

In order to answer those two questions, the researcher conducted document analysis to find out the errors made by the respondents. The documents were the 19 respondents’ teaching transcripts. The errors found were then classified into several categories based on the linguistic category taxonomy, where the errors were classified according to the language components, and then check-listed into the four classifications of sources of errors proposed by Richards (1977),which are overgeneralization, incomplete application or rules, ignorance of rules restriction, and false hypothesized concept.

From the data gathered the biggest share went for word formation and consecutively followed by the auxiliary system, English sentence structure, prepositions, transformations, conjunctions, passive sentences, dan gerund and infinitive. The checklist revealed that a major cause of errors belonged to incomplete application of rules, where most of the errors were due to the missing of language elements belonging to both lexical categories and functional categories. This fact showed that the syntactic and morphological errors which the respondents produced were in a positive learning; according to Richards (1974), errors belonging to this category represent the degree of their learning to produce grammatical constructions. After finding out the errors and the possible sources of errors, the researcher proposed some recommendations to lecturers, students, and further researchers who are interested in this topic.

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ABSTRAK

Kartikasari, Fransiska Novi (2012). Syntactic and Morphological Errors Analysis in Spoken English of Micro Teaching Students of the Academic Year 2010/2011. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Kualitas penguasaan Bahasa Inggris salah satunya ditentukan oleh ketepatan

pengunaan grammar. Seperti yang tertulis dalam buku Write Well, Improving

Writing Skills, Bram (1995) menyatakan bahwa siswa jurusan Bahasa Inggris harus menggunakan Bahasa Inggris sesuai aturan standar serta menghindari membuat kesalahan gramatikal ketika berbicara maupun menulis. Seiring dengan perkembangan pembelajarannya, mahasiswa Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris (PBI) sebagai anggota dari jurusan bahasa sering memproduksi pola ucapan yang tidak gramatikal. Padahal, sebagai guru Bahasa Inggris, mereka diharapkan mampu untuk menjadi model pengguna Bahasa Inggris yang bertanggung jawab, yakni dengan menggunakan Bahasa Inggris secara tepat, akurat, dan bermakna. Oleh karena itu, beberapa tipe kesalahan yang muncul berikut penyebabnya menjadi penting untuk dipelajari.

Ada dua pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini, yakni (1) Tipe-tipe kesalahan dalam sintak dan morfologi apa saja yang muncul saat siswa melakukan praktek mengajar mikro? dan (2) Apa penyebab terbesar kesalahan grammatical yang muncul saat siswa melakukan praktek mengajar mikro?

Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, peneliti melakukan analisa dokumen. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mencari tahu kesalahan yang dibuat oleh responden. Dokumen tersebut berupa transkrip rekaman praktek mengajar dari 19 mahasiswa. Kesalahan yang ditemukan kemudian dikategorikan berdasarkan linguistic category taxonomy, dimana peneliti dapat mengklasifikasikan kesalahan berdasarkan komponen-komponen bahasa, dan jga dikategorikan kemudian berdasarkan keempat klasifikasi penyebab kesalahan oleh Richards (1977).

Berdasarkan data yang diperoleh, kesalahan terbesar masuk dalam kategori

word formation, dan secara berurutan diikuti oleh auxiliary system, English

sentence structure, prepositions, transformations, conjunctions, passive sentences, dan gerund and infinitive. Hasil dari checklist menunjukkan bahwa penyebab

kesalahan terbesar adalah incomplete application of rules, yakni hilangnya salah

satu elemen bahasa yang masuk dalam kategori leksikal and fungsional. Kenyataan ini menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan responden merupakan suatu wujud pembelajaran positif. Menurut Richards (1974), keberadaan ini mengindikasikan suatu peningkatan pembelajaran untuk dapat menghasilkan pola ucapan yang gramatikal. Setelah mengetahui kesalahan yang muncul berikut penyebabnya, peneliti mengajukan beberapa rekomendasi bagi pengajar, mahasiswa, serta peneliti lain yang tertarik pada bidang ini.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My endless gratefulness and never-ending gratitude goes to Jesus Christ

and Mother Mary for endowing me with splendid blessings and love. Their blessings were never apart from me in my thesis accomplishment.

I would like to express my deepest and sincere appreciation to my sponsor,

Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd, M.Pd. Her guidance, suggestions, feedback, attention, and motivation have given influential contributions for the accomplishment of this thesis. I also thank Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D.,

Made Frida Yulia, S.Pd., M.Pd., and Sr. Margareth, FCJ for the valuable guidance.

I am greatly thankful to all PBI lecturers who have guided me during my studying in Sanata Dharma University. I will never forget their contribution in guiding me to be a mature person. I send my thankfulness to all of the Micro Teaching class students for the valuable research samples for my thesis and not to forget Mbak Dani, Mbak Tari, and all library staff for the assistance during my study.

My greatest gratitude is directed to my parents: Ignatius Sumarno and

Pariyah Florentina, my sisters Crissensia Hartanti and Maria Septi Nugraheni, and my just born little nephew Nicolas Naraharyya Putra Kusuma for their support and motivation, unconditional love, encouragement, and prayers for my study accomplishment. I would never have finished my study without all of their care and attention. I also thank my extended families for giving me still spirit during my difficulties.

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I express my sincere attitude to all of my friends of PBI’ 07 particularly

Merici, Shanti, Calvin, Rudi, Peni, Deny and Hedwig and for the togetherness we have gone through during my study; to my friends in my former boarding house, Kos Idjoe: Ita, Dwi, Hita, Ussi, Mitha, Ria, Dio, Mbak Meta, Mbak Tutik for the nights and days; and to my all friends in OMK St. Petrus Tegalsari particulary to Aji, Nico, Mas Toto, Mas Endro, Mas Hery, Gandi, Udhew and

The Tomcats who often reminded me to finish my thesis and awaken my spirit

when I got bored; to my KKN friends, Khenil, Andrea, Lita, Wene, Danang, and to Nathan for the golden advice for me to fight for life.

Finally, I would like to thank all people who have given me support, love, guidance, and prayers whose names cannot be mentioned one by one.

Fransiska Novi Kartikasari

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGES ... ii

DEDICATION PAGE ... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi

ABSTRACT ... vii

ABSTRAK ... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xi

LIST OF TABLES ... xiv

LIST OF FIGURES ... xv

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research Background ... 1

1.2 Research Problems ... 4

1.3 Problem Limitation ... 4

1.4 Research Objectives ... 5

1.5 Research Benefits ... 5

1.6 Definition of Terms ... 6

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Theoretical Description ... 9

2.1.1 Theory of Error ... 9

2.1.1.1 Different Types of Error ... 9

2.1.1.2 Linguistic Category Taxonomy ... 10

2.1.1.3 Sources of Errors ... 11

2.1.2 Dimensions of Grammar ... 12

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2.1.4 Syntactic Theories ... 16

2.1.4.1 Word-level Categories ... 16

2.1.4.2 Phrase Structure ... 22

2.1.4.3 Sentence Structures... 22

2.1.4.4 Complement Options ... 23

2.1.4.5 Transformations ... 24

2.1.4.6 Coordination Structures ... 26

2.1.4.7 Relative Clauses ... 27

2.1.4.8 Passive Structures ... 27

2.1.4.9 Tag Questions ... 28

2.1.4.10Prepositions ... 29

2.1.4.11Expletive There ... 29

2.2 Theoretical Framework... 29

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Methodology ... 32

3.2 Research Setting ... 33

3.3 Research Participants ... 33

3.4 Instruments and Data Gathering technique ... 34

3.5 Data Analysis Technique ... 35

3.6 Research Procedure ... 41

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1.Types of Errors ... 43

4.1.1 Data Presentation ... 43

4.1.2 Discussion... 49 

4.1.2.1 Word Formation ... 49 

4.1.2.2 The Auxiliary System ... 56 

4.1.2.3 Preposition ... 59 

4.1.2.4 English Sentence Structure ... 61 

4.1.2.5 Transformations ... 62 

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4.1.2.7 Passive Sentences ... 67 

4.1.2.8 Gerund and Infinitives ... 69 

4.1.2.9 Multiple Errors  ... 69 

4.2. Possible Sources of Errors ... 71

4.2.1 Data Presentation and Discussion ... 71

4.2.1.1 Incomplete Application of Rules ... 71 

4.2.1.2 Overgeneralization ... 73 

4.2.1.3 False Hypothesized Concept ... 75 

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions ... 79

5.2 Recommendations ... 80

5.2.1 For Students ... 80

5.2.2 For Lecturers ... 81

5.2.3 For Future Researchers ... 81

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy from Dulay et al. (1982) ... 11

3.1 The Classification of Errors and the Examples ... 36

3.2 Sources of Errors Checklist ... 37

3.3 The Frequency Distribution of the Sources of Errors ... 39

3.4 The Percentage Rank from High to Low ... 40

4.1 The Classification of Errors and Their Examples ... 44

4.2 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Structure of Plural Noun ... 50

4.3 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Structure of Past Participle ... 51

4.4 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Verb after Third Person Singular ... 52

4.5 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Use of Indefinite Article ... 53

4.6 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Use of Definite Article ... 54

4.7 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Structure of Simple Past ... 54

4.8 Other Errors within Word Formation ... 55

4.9 Errors on Auxiliary System ... 56

4.10 Errors on the Use of Be and Have ... 57

4.11 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Use of Preposition ... 59

4.12 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Structures of English Sentence ... 61

4.13 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Transformation ... 62

4.14 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Use of Conjunctions ... 66

4.15 Errors Belonging to Incorrect Construction of Passives ... 67

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4.17 Multiple errors ... 70

4.18 Errors Belonging to Incomplete Application of Rules ... 71

4.19 Errors Belonging to Overgeneralization ... 73

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 The Three Dimensions of Grammar ... 13

2.2 The Surface Structure for Which car should the man repair? ... 25

2.3 The Surface Structure for Do those birds sing? ... 26 

4.1 The Transformation of When will the party be held? ... 63 

4.2 The Transformation of What have we learnt? ... 63

4.3 The Transformation of the Embedded Clause of What appointment is ... 65  

 

                           

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

A The Classification of Errors and Their Examples ... 85 B Sources of Errors ... 104 C The Respondents’ Teaching Transcripts ... 119

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of research background, research problems, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

1.1 Research Background

English Language Education Study Program, further being referred to as ELESP, is a study program under the faculty of teachers training and education. As written in Panduan Akademik (2007), one of the goals to achieve is to generate scholars with the competences of being professional, which is having a wide and deep mastery on English subject (p. 2). Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1983) put her insights on the skills or competencies that professional English teachers are ideally expected to have as follows.

The first competence is to have a good grasp of English subject matter, including grammar (p. 1). Basically, grammar becomes the basis for each language. A responsible English learner, either speaker or writer, must be aware of the grammatical knowledge and follow the Standard English grammar. As what was stated by Leech and Svartvik, grammatical knowledge helps English learners to have proper use of language, which is the criterion of being a responsible English learner. “Learners have to know the grammatical structures and their meaning in order to use a language properly” (Leech & Svartvik, 1979, p. 21). For ELESP students, grammar functions not only as an aid to help communicate, yet it

becomes a subject to teach to the next youth. Therefore, a great comprehension of grammar is highly required to have by ELESP students.

The second competence is to give a good linguistic model. She/he should seemingly be a native or near-native speaker of English. Expectedly, she/he is able to be an excellent model for the students by demonstrating good and fluent control of English (p. 1). This is expected to occur both in written English and Spoken English. As written in the book of Write Well, Improving Writing Skills (1995) written by Bram, English Department obliges its students to also follow the rules of standard English grammar and/or avoid making any of the grammar errors whenever they speak or write English (p. 54). In this book, there are points of grammar to be fulfilled during speaking which are referred to as minimum requirements; they include concord, finite verb, tenses, verb group, and articles (pp. 55-56). As stated in this book, these minimum requirements are minimum criteria to qualify themselves to be members of English department.

Principally, grammatical errors in spoken English are more permissible than in written English. In spoken English, the speakers have less time to think to organize the structure. Instead, they have no time to revise the errors they produce while speaking compared to in written English. For those reasons, errors in spoken English are common to occur often. However, Micro Teaching students as professional trained teachers are expected not to make errors repeatedly. In the educational area, they should perform good English by the use of correct grammar in speaking or writing. The main reasons are that they must be good models for their students later on and that making repeated errors is not highly tolerated

primarily for teacher candidates. The errors in spoken English vary; they can be errors in the area of phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantic. This research is going to focus on morphology and syntax.

As a matter of fact, EFL learners whose mother tongue is Indonesianoften find it difficult to learn English. English provides language systems which are obviously more complex by the use of tenses, singular and plural form, masculine and feminism use of pronoun, dissimilar to Indonesian. The considerable distinction on its system brings grammatical system to be problematic to EFL learners. This was proven by the observable finding of frequent basic grammatical errors produced by Micro Teaching students when conducting micro teaching in lower semester classes in ELESP. The examples of the errors found are *Are you

feel okay? and *Do you know what is the meaning of plaid? Half of the errors in

fact deviate from the obligation of English Department mentioned previously by Bram in his book Write Well, Improving Writing Skills (1995). From the errors observed, the researcher found it worthwhile to conduct a research on grammar.

In addition, one research which analyzed problematic grammar features is a research conducted by Rusi Yanny (2007) entitled An Analysis on Grammatical Errors in the Spoken Language Made by Students of Business

Communication Class at Wisma Bahasa Yogyakarta. This research reported that students of Business Communication Class had difficulty with tenses. Besides, almost all of the errors made by the learners happened because they paid less attention to the rule restriction. Any other researches on grammar similar to a research conducted by Rusi Yanny are still crucial. Unlike the research conducted

by a senior whose research subjects are students of Business Communication at

Wisma Bahasa, this research is intended to figure out the types of morphological

and syntactic errors in spoken English by Micro Teaching students of English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

1.2 Research Problems

There are problems stated in this research that are formulated in two questions.

1. What are the types of syntactic and morphological errors produced by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011?

2. What are the possible sources of errors made by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011?

1.3 Problem Limitation

This research focuses on two points: (1) the types of syntactic and morphological errors which are produced by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011; and (2) the possible sources of errors which are produced by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011. Due to the extent of grammar, the researcher limits the analysis only in the field of both word formation and the construction of utterances. It excludes words selection and some other types of grammar, such as how constructions derive meaning and how to pronounce words.

1.4 Research Objectives

Since this research has two research problems, this research has two research objectives as well. The first is to figure out the types of syntactic and morphological errors produced by the Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011. The second objective is to figure out the possible sources or errors produced by the Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011.

1.5 Research Benefits

This research brings benefits for both the respondents and the English lecturers. For the respondents, this research helps the respondents to become aware of the errors so that they make greater effort to have self error correction of their errors for the betterment. It is expected that they regard grammar as one important element in speaking as well as in writing. Since ELESP students are candidates of English teachers, they must be able to speak fluently by using correct grammar in order to be good models for the students. Through analyzing the errors, they are expected not to make the same errors again.

Apart from that, this study is beneficial for the English lecturers related to speaking classes whether it is Interactional Speech I-II, Transactional Speech, or Public Speaking I-II and of grammar which are Structure I-IV. From the result of the research, it is expected that the lecturers of Structure subject are aware of the ELESP students’ difficulties on the particular types of grammatical errors and so the lecturers will put some strategies in place to overcome the problems. By their

awareness, it is expected that the lecturers will give possible recommendation or create a strategy to overcome the problems.

1.6 Definition of Terms

Some terms below need to be defined in order to avoid misunderstanding. The terms are as follows.

1. Morphology

Morphology is defined by O’Grady (1997) as “the system of categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation” (p. 132). Morphology is the area of study which guides the language learners to produce standardized English words. There are many morphological phenomena; however, the researcher defines the area of morphological phenomena in the field of affixation English inflectional affixation and English derivational affixation, internal change, and compounding. In this research, the utterances produced by Micro Teaching students which deviate from the rule of morphological formation are regarded as morphological errors, while the other errors related with phrasal, clausal and sentential construction, belong to syntactic errors.

2. Syntax

Miller (2002) mentions that syntax has to do with “how words are put together to build phrases, with how phrases are put together to build clauses or bigger phrases, and with how clauses are put together to build sentences” (p. xii). He adds that studying syntax enables language learners to compose complex sentences (p. xii). In this research, utterances produced by Micro Teaching

students which do not follow the rules of syntax of Standard English are regarded as syntactic errors. Syntactic errors include incorrect use of preposition, incorrectness on auxiliary systems, incorrect transformation, incorrect structure of English sentence, incorrect passive sentences, incorrect construction of English, incorrect application of gerund and infinitives, and incorrect use of conjunctions. 3. Error

An error as stated by Norrish (1983) is “a ‘consistent deviation’ because the learner has not learnt something so that he consistently ‘gets it wrong’” (p. 7). An error is different from a mistake. It can be called an error if learners make deviancy because they have not learnt the correct form, while it is a mistake if learners are actually conscious that ‘it is wrong’ because they have acquired the information. In this research, all utterances which deviate from the rules of morphology and syntax are regarded as errors. This judgment is without any efforts from the researcher to investigate whether or not they have acknowledged the information. The errors analyzed are the nonstandard English morphological formations and nonstandard English syntactic constructions. The errors, indeed, include the ungrammatical utterances because of the incorrectly pronounced words. Nonetheless, this research does not analyze the errors from the phonological aspect.

4. Micro Teaching

Micro Teaching is a compulsory course (KPE 361) in English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) which aimed at helping the students “to understand the concepts and procedure of English language teaching and are able

to apply them in a real classroom teaching situation and to evaluate their teaching performance” (Panduan Akademik, 2007, p. 90). This is a course to prepare students before carrying out a real teaching practice in Senior High School or Junior High School through Program Pengalaman Lapangan (PPL). Itis the first formal teaching practices in ELESP that its students must confront. In this research, Micro Teaching students are ELESP students who are conducting teaching practices in Micro Teaching class.

5. Spoken English

The term spoken English should be taken to mean “the variety of English which is generally used by educated people in the course of ordinary conversation or when writing letters to intimate friends” (Palmer & Blandford, 1955, p. xxxiii). In this research, spoken English is the use of English in speaking when the respondents were conducting Micro Teaching. The utterances analyzed are those produced by the respondents only when becoming the simulated teacher. The researcher ignored those utterances which are produced by the respondents when acting as the simulated teacher’s students.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses the related literature which serves as the basis to answer the research questions. There are two major parts in this chapter, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework.

2.1 Theoretical Description

This part provides four major underlying theories for the research, namely theory of errors, dimensions of grammar, morphological phenomena, and syntactic theories.

2.1.1 Theory of Error

As this research deals with errors analysis, it is significant to provide some theories regarding errors. They are different types of error, linguistic category taxonomy, and sources of errors.

2.1.1.1 Different Types of Error

Norrish (1983) has distinguished different types of anomalous language behavior: the error, the mistake, and the lapse (p.7-9). Norrish (1983) defines

error as a consistent deviation because the learner of English as a second or foreign language has not learnt the correct form (p. 7).

Norrish (1983) defines the second type of anomalous language behavior,

   

foreign language has noticed or been taught and sometimes uses the wrong form, for example the English verb ’must’ does not follow the same pattern as some of the other modal verbs (p. 8). There is time when he uses he must go and *he must to go. He calls a mistake if sometimes the learner makes a mistake and uses the wrong form, yet sometimes he uses the correct form (p. 8).

The last type is lapse. It is “due to lack of concentration, shortness of memory, fatigue, etc” (Norrish, 1983, p. 9). He further states that “a lapse bears a little relation to whether or not a given form in the language has been learnt, has not been learnt or in the process of being learnt” (p. 9).

2.1.1.2 Linguistic Category Taxonomy

Dulay, Burt, and Krashen (1982) state that “linguistic category taxonomies classify errors according to either or both the language component or the particular linguistic constituent the error effect” (p. 146). Language components include phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), semantics and lexicon meaning and vocabulary, and discourse (style). Constituents include the elements that comprise each language components (Dulay et al., 1982, p. 147). Dulay et al. (1982) mention an example of errors classification based on linguistic category taxonomy; within syntax, there is an error in the main subordinate clause and within the subordinate clause, there is an errors on the constituent that is effected, such as the noun phrase, the auxiliary, the verb phrase, the preposition, the adverb, the adjective, and so forth (p. 147).

   

The example of this type of error classification and the examples of English learners’ errors are seen in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy from Dulay et al. (1982) Linguistic Category Error

Type

Example of Learner Error 1. Morphology

A. Indefinite article incorrect *A ant B. Past participle incorrect *He was call 2. Syntax

A. Word order

(i) Repetition of the object *The bird (object) he was gonna shoot it B. Transformation

a. There transformation

(i) Omission of there *Is one bird b. Question transformation

(i) Omission of auxiliary *How the story helps?

2.1.1.3 Sources of Errors

Richards (1977b) distinguishes sources of errors into three different categories (as cited in Ellis, 1994, p. 58). They are as follows.

2.1.1.3.1. Interference errors

They occur because of “the use of elements from one language while speaking another” (p. 58). One example is *I go not.

2.1.1.3.2. Intralingual errors

They “reflect the general characteristics of rule learning such as faulty generalization, incomplete application of rules and failure to learn conditions under which rules may apply” (Richards, 1974, pp. 174-177). They are as follows.

   

2.1.1.3.2.1. Overgeneralization

It includes “where the learner creates a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structures in the target language” (p. 174). One example is *He can sings instead of He can sing.

2.1.1.3.2.2. Ignorance of rule restriction

It is a “failure to observe the restriction of existing structures” (p. 175). An example is *He made me to rest.

2.1.1.3.2.3. Incomplete application of rules

It is “the occurrence of structures whose deviancy represents the degree of development of the rules required to produce acceptable utterances” (p. 177). One example is *You like to sing?

2.1.1.3.3. Developmental errors

They “illustrate the learners attempting to build up hypotheses about the English language from his limited experience of it in the classroom or textbook” (p.174). Next it was called as false hypothesized concepts. It is a “faulty comprehension of distinctions in the target language” (p. 178). An example is the use of ‘was’ as a marker of past tense in *One day it was happened.

2.1.2 Dimensions of Grammar

Radford (1997a) mentions grammar as “the study of the principle which govern the formation and interpretation of words, phrases and sentence” (p. Related with its function, Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1999) add that “the recognition of grammar is not merely a collection of forms but rather involves the

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morphological evidence comes from the inflectional and derivational properties of words. Inflectional deals with different forms of the same (e.g. the plural form of a noun like cat is formed by adding the plural inflection -s to give the form cats), while derivational deals with the processes where a word can be used to form a different kind of word by adding another morpheme ((e.g. by adding the suffix – ness to the adjective sad we can form the noun sadness) (p. 29).

Aronoff (1985) mentions “Inflectional is generally viewed as encompassing the ‘purely grammatical’ markers, those for tense, aspect, person, number, gender, case, etc” (p. 2). The few inflections are signaled by a comparatively small number of regular morphemes:

Verb inflections

(i). Past tense: ed (attack + ed)

(ii). Past participle: ed (attack + ed)

(iii). Present participle: ing (attack + ing)

(iv). 3rd person singular present tense: s (attack + s)

Noun infections

(v). Plural: s (dog + s)

(vi). Possessive: ‘s, s’ (dog + ‘s, dog + s’)

Adjective/adverb inflections

(vii). Comparative: er (large + er)

(viii). Superlative: est (large + est)

According to Radford (1997b), there are three complications which should be pointed out:

1. The existence of irregular nouns like sheep, which are invariable and hence have a common singular/plural form (cf. one sheep, two sheep) (p. 30)

2. Some nouns have no plural by virtue of their meaning: only those nouns (generally called count noun) which denote entities which can be counted have plural form (e.g. chair – cf. one chair, two chairs); some nouns denote

   

an uncountable mass and for this reason are called mass noun or noncount noun, and so cannot be pluralized, *two furnitures) (p. 30).

3. Noun expression which contain more than one noun; only the head noun in such expressions can be pluralized, not any preceding noun used as a dependent or modifier of the head noun: thus, in expressions such as car doors, policy decisions, skate boards,… the second noun is the head noun and can be pluralized, whereas the first noun is a nonhead … and cannot be pluralized (p. 30).

O’Grady (1997) mentions that derivation is “an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its base (p. 122). He further states “derivational affixes characteristically change the category and/or the type of meaning of the form to which they apply” (p. 132). The examples of English derivational affixation is modern (Adj) + -ize (affix) becomes modernize (V).

2.1.3.2. Internal change

It is “a process that substitutes one non-morphemic segment for another” (O’Grady, 1997, p. 141). For example drive to be drove.

2.1.3.3. Suppletion

It is “a morphological process whereby a root morpheme is replaced by a phonological unrelated form in order to indicate a grammatical contrast” (O’Grady, 1997, p. 142). For example to have becomes had.

   

2.1.3.4. Stress and Tone Placement

According to O’Grady (1997), it is a case where “a base can undergo a change in the placement of stress or tone to reflect a change in its category” (O’Grady, 1997, p. 142). For example: import (as a noun) and import (as a verb).

2.1.3.5. Reduplication

It is a repetition of all or parts of the base to which it applies to mark a grammatical or semantic contrast (O’Grady, 1997, p. 143).

2.1.3.6. Compounding

It is “a combination of lexical categories (noun, adjective verbs, or preposition) to create a larger word” (O’Grady, 1997, p. 143). For example

bluebird.

2.1.4 Syntactic Theories

Syntax is a term used for the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences (Finch, 2005, p. 73). It deals with an emphasis on the manner in which words are combined to form various types of sentences. This includes four sections, namely word-level categories, phrase structure, sentence structure, complement options, transformations, coordination structures, relative clause, passive structures, tag question, preposition, and expletive there.

2.1.4.1 Word-level categories

According to O’Grady (1997), syntactic categories consist of two (p. 182). Firstly, syntactic categories, called as lexical categories, play a very important role

   

in sentence formation.; they are noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), preposition (P), and adverbs (Adv). The second syntactic category, non-lexical categories (also called as functional categories), includes determiner (Det), auxiliary verbs (Aux), conjunctions (Con) and degree of words (Deg). Such elements generally have meanings that are harder to define and paraphrase than those of lexical categories.

1.1.1.1.1. Noun

Noun is a type of word that behaves in a particular manner (Finch, 2005, p. 103). Nouns are classified into two; they are common noun, e.g. woman and proper noun, which is not used with the articles or with other parts of the determiner, e.g. Sally (Roberts, 1964, pp. 101-102). Common noun consists of two types, the first is noncount noun, which refers to uncounted things and the second count noun, which refers to countable things. (Roberts, 1964, pp. 101-102). “A singular count noun cannot stand on its own as a complete noun expression; rather, it requires a premodifying determiner like

a/the/another/this/my etc “(Radford, 1997a, p. 47).

1.1.1.1.2. Verb

Verb is a class of words that typically denote a process or state of being (Finch, 2005, p. 122). Verbs which act as the main verb in a verb phrase are called lexical verbs (Finch, 2005, pp. 122-123). Lexical verbs can be divided into regular and irregular. Regular verbs characteristically form the past tense by adding -ed,

   

do not (Finch, 2005, pp. 122-123). These have an unpredictable past tense, such as catch → caught, and take → took.

1.1.1.1.3. Adjective

Adjectives are words that specify the attributes of nouns (Finch, 2005, p. 78). According to him, in formal terms adjectives are usually defined by their distribution, that is, where they can occur in word strings: first, in an attributive position with noun phrase, as in the lovely book; and secondly, in a post verbal, or predicate position as in the book is lovely (p. 78). He further mentions that any adjectives are gradable; first, they can be modified by degree words, such as very and quite, indicating intensity (e.g. very beautiful, quite short) and the second, they can also be used in a comparative and superlative form (lovely, lovelier, loveliest (Finch, 2005, p. 78). Comparative forms are made with either suffix -er

or the word more. However, superlative forms are made with either suffix -est or the word most. Suffix -er and suffix -est are used with adjectives and adverbs of one syllable, e.g. tall/taller/-the-tallest and with adjectives that end in -y (2 syllables), e.g. busy/busier/busiest (Krohn, 1977, pp. 164-167). The word more

and most are used with most adjectives and adverbs of two or more syllables, e.g. careful/more careful/-the- most careful and with adverbs that have the adverb suffix -ly, e.g. carefully/more carefully (Krohn, 1977, pp. 164-167).

1.1.1.1.4. Adverb

Adverb modifies a verb by giving circumstantial information about time, place, or manner in which an action, event, or process takes place (Finch, 2005, p.

   

108). Many adverbs, although not all, are formed by adding the suffix -ly onto an adjective, e.g. beautifully, quickly, sadly

1.1.1.1.5. Prepositions

Prepositions, are “words that relate two parts of a sentence together where the relationship is typically one of tie, place, or logic” (Finch, 2005, p. 108). He further mentions that simple preposition consists of one word (e.g. about) and complex prepositions of more than one word (e.g. in front of) (p. 108).

1.1.1.1.6. Determiners (Det)

Determiners are a class of words that always occur with a noun and serve to specify, or ‘determine’, its number and definiteness (Finch, 2005, p. 86). Radford (1997a) elaborates the functions of determiners into the following.

1.1.1.1.6.1. A, an, and the

Article a, an, and the function to modifies a singular count noun (p. 47). According to Radford (1997a), determiners can be used to premodify any kind of noun, yet restricted for the use of a(n) to only premodify a singular count noun (p. 47). Definite article the is used when the noun follows names an identified specimen; that is, when the hearer knows which person, place, or thing the noun refers to, both singular and plural. However, the is not used with names of persons, languages, most countries, streets, or time of the day (Krohn, 1971, pp. 54-55).

1.1.1.1.6.2. This/that/these/those and my/your/his

   

function to introduce referring expressions (p. 46)

1.1.1.1.6.3. Some, many, and several

Quantifiers (some, many, several) function to denote quantity (p. 46). According to Krohn (1971), some can be used together with both count nouns as plural to mean an indefinite number of countable things and noncount nouns to mean an indefinite quantity of something not countable (p. 51).

1.1.1.1.7. Auxiliary (Aux)

Auxiliary, popularly known as ‘helping verbs’, are restricted both in form and in distribution. Many of them, such as can/could and shall/should, have only two forms to indicate present and past. They don’t have any ing-form for instance *canning or *shalling. In addition, they can never serve as main verbs; they must always occur with a lexical verb. There are two kinds of auxiliary verb: primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries.

Primary auxiliary is capable of acting both as auxiliaries and as lexical verbs (i.e. be, have, and do). In this latter capacity, they are responsible for the generation of both the progressive and perfect aspect and the passive voice. The second kind, the modals, as their name suggests, are responsible for the particular mood of the verb phrase. They serve to indicate such moods as permission (can/could), intention (will, would), and compulsion (must). Interestingly, where they occur in verb phrase, they are subject to a fixed order:

e.g. She could have been being beaten

   

1.1.1.1.8. Conjunctions (Con)

Conjunctions are “words that join sentences or parts of sentences” (Roberts, 1964, p. 285). He mentions that there are two main kinds of conjunctions: coordinating (i.e. and, but, and or) and subordinating (e.g. if, when). The first sort links together units that are equal status. The second involve a more complex relationship between units being joined, where one is thought to be subordinate to, i.e. dependent to the other.

1.1.1.1.9. Degree words

Degree words belong to functional categories as “such elements generally have meanings that are harder to define and paraphrase than those of lexical categories” (O’Grady, 1997, p. 157). Some examples of degree words are as follows.

Very means “to a high degree”, e.g. John is very tired. Therefore, he can’t study (Krohn, 1971, p. 139).

So means “to the extent of degree” e.g. so far from (Hornby, 1974, p. 817)

Too means “excessive”, e.g. John is too tired to study. Too tired to study means that “to study” is something that will not (or did not, does not, or should not) happen. Very cannot be used in this situation (Krohn, 1971, p. 139).

Enough means “sufficient”. It follows the adjectives (or adverb) that it modifies, as in John is old enough to vote (Krohn, 1971, p. 139), precedes a

   

noun, as in I have enough strength to lift that box, or follows a noun, as in I have strength enough to lift that box (Azar, 1989, p. 177).

More, according to Hornby (1974), means “greater in number, quantity, quality, degree, size, etc” (p. 549). Its usage description is seen in page 19.

2.1.4.2 Phrase Structures

According to Roberts (1964), a phrase is a group of words or a single word (p. 10). He further mentions that there are five kinds of phrases; they are as follows, prepositional phrases, participial phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, and appositive phrases (p. 10).

Firstly, a prepositional phrase is “a group of words beginning with a preposition and usually ending with a noun or pronoun” (p. 37), e.g. The rapidly developing storm kept small boats in port.

Secondly, a participial phrase, is “a phrase containing a participle and any complements or modifiers it may have” (p. 42), e.g. Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river bank. Thirdly,

Thirdly, a gerund phrase, is “a phrase consisting a verbal noun and any complements or modifiers it may have” (p. 46), e.g. Carrying coals to Newcastle is a traditional example of the unnecessary.

Fourthly, an infinitive phrase, “consists of an infinitive and any complements or modifiers it may have” (p. 46) e.g. We intend to leave early.

Lastly, an appositive, is “a noun or pronoun-often with modifiers-set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it” (p. 50), e.g. Your friend Tina

   

2.1.4.3 Sentence Structures

The largest unit of syntactic analysis is the sentence (S) (Roberts, 1964, p. 1). He further defines sentences into two: kernel sentences and transform. He describes kernel sentences as “elementary sentences of the language, the stuff from which ‘all else’ is made”, while transforms as the “’all else’ structure” drawn from the kernel to produce more complicated structures of English sentences (p. 1).

Traditionally, a kernel sentence contains two main parts: noun phrase (NP), functioning as subject, and verb Phrase (VP), functioning as predicate. Warriner (1982) writes that how long the subject or predicate is, it always becomes the core of sentence or utterance-an essential part (p. 24). Sentences have their head an abstract category dubbed ‘infl’, short for inflection, which indicates the sentence’s tense (e.g. they are either past or non-past).

2.1.4.4 Complement Options

According to Downing and Locke (1992), complements may occur as “obligatory or nuclear” elements and as “optional or non-nuclear” elements (p. 26). The obligatory or nuclear constituents, according to Downing and Locke (1992) are called complements, while the optional or non-nuclear constituents are called adjuncts (p. 26). Downing and Locke (1992) mention that complements are typically realized by Nominal Groups (NGs) and Adjectival Groups (AdjGs), whereas Adjuncts are typically realized by Adverbial Groups (AdvGs) and Prepositional Groups (PrepGs) (p. 26). For example A PrepG realizes Adjuncts at

   

the weekend in Tom runs at the weekend and a Predicator Complement to work in Tom runs to work.

Downing and Locke (1992) mention that complements play as subject complements and object complements (pp 50-53). The subject complements which are realized by Adjectival Groups is, according to Downing & Locke (1992), “the obligatory constituent which follows a copular verb and which cannot be made Subject in a passive clause” (p. 50), e.g. That journey was a mistake. There are verbs used to link the subject to its complements; they are be, seem, transition (become, go, grow, turn), and perception (sound, smell, look). Secondly, object complement is “the constituent which completes the prediction when the verb chosen leads us to specify sme characteristics of the direct object” (Downing & Locke, 1992, p. 53). According to Downing and Locke (1992), the object complement, which is realized by nominal group, is linked in an intensive relationship with the direct object, though it is not linked by a copula, e.g. Circumstances have made the brothers enemies (p. 53).

2.1.4.5Transformations

According to O’Grady (1997), transformational analysis is claiming that there are two levels of syntactic structure; the first level is called deep structure and the second level, called surface structure, it results from applying whatever transformations are appropriate for the sentences in question (p. 203). He mentions that the surface structure for the question pattern is formed by applying the inversion transformation. According to O’Grady (1997), question structures

   

are built up in two distinct levels of syntactic structure (p. 203). The first step is forming a structure in which the auxiliary takes its normal position in inflection within Complement Phrase (CP), that is between subject and the Verb Phrase (VP). The second step involves transformation. This step is known as inversion, where it moves an element from the normal inflection position to the head Complementizer position of CP (p. 203)

Figure 2.2 Surface structure for Which car should the man repair? Inflection moves to the C position and the WH phrase moves to the specifier position under CP

Transformation in interrogative involves three subdivisions, including inversion in yes-no questions, WH-movement, and do-insertion (O’Grady, 1997, pp. 203-212). According to O’Grady (1997), the first, yes/no question, involves an auxiliary inversion; that is to inverse the auxiliary form the inflection position to head Complementizers (C) position of Complement Phrase (CP). According to O’Grady (1997), the second, WH-movement, requires a transformation that will move the WH-phrase from normal position to the specifier position under CP. The process of WH-movement and auxiliary inversion can be seen in Figure 2.2.

The last is do insertion. According to O’Grady (1997), it occurs if the inflection in the sentences contains only an abstract (i.e. invisible) tense marker,

   

there is nothing for the inversion transformation to move (p. 209). He mentions that English circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do; it applies do to be inserted into sentence that do not already have an auxiliary verb, thereby making inversion possible. He further mentions that it inserts interrogative do into an empty inflection position (O’Grady, 1997, p. 210). The do

insertion and its inversion can be seen in Figure 2.3

Figure 2.3 Surface tructure for Do those birds sing? Do is inserted in inflection position and is inversed to C position under CP

2.1.4.6 Coordination Structures

A common syntactic pattern in English and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or (O’Grady, 1997, p. 222). It is known as coordination. O’Grady (1997) mentions four important properties that coordination exhibits. First, there is no limit on the number of coordination categories that can appear prior to the conjunction, e.g. [NP A man, a boy, a cat, and a hamster] got into the car (p. 233). Second, a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated, e.g. [P up] and [P down] the stairs (p. 233).

   

Third, coordinated categories must be the same of the same type, e.g. [VP go to the library] and [VP read a book] (p. 222). Finally, the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. Hence, if VPs are coordinated, the coordinate structure is a VP, if NPs are coordinated, the coordinate structure is an NP; and so on, e.g. [VP read a book] or [VPwalk the dog] (p. 224).

2.1.4.7 Relative Clause

Azar (1989) mentions that an adjective clause is ‘a dependant clause that modifies a noun, it describes, identifies, or gives further information about a noun” (p. 238). O’Grady (1997) believes relative clause resemble embedded WH- question in two respects. First, it begins with a WH word such as who or which. Second, there is an empty position within a sentence from which the WH phrase has apparently been moved. The first step in the formation of the relative clause involves the deep structure, e.g. Sue may know the man Bob criticized who. Here, the WH word who plays as complement of the verb criticize since it corresponds to the person who is criticized. The next step is the application of the WH

movement. The sentence then becomes Sue may know the man whom Bob criticized (pp. 227-228).

2.1.4.8 Passive Structures

Sentences consist of active and passive. O’Grady (1997) believes, in order to describe the differences and similarities between these two sentences, it is

   

necessary to distinguish between the agent (the doer of the action designated by the verb) and the theme (the entity directly affected by the action) (p. 229). For example (a) The thieves took the painting and (b) The painting was taken (by the thieves). The (a) sentence is called active because the agent is encoded as subject of the sentence while the (b) sentence is called passive in the recognition of the fact that the theme is encoded as subject. O’Grady (1997) mentions three distinctive properties in English passive.

“Passive construction involves a major reduction in the importance of the agent; indeed, whereas the agent serves as subject of an active clause, it is not expressed at all in the vast majority of passive sentences in English” (p. 190). “Some other NP-usually the direct object of the corresponding active sentence-functions as subject in the passive sentence (p. 190).

“Verbs that cannot occur with a direct object NP in an active sentence typically cannot occur in a passive sentence (p. 190).

According to Azar (1989), to form a passive sentence, direct object from active sentence must be repositioned as the subject and the verb must be reformed to be past participle (p. 120).

2.1.4.9 Tag Questions

According to Azar (1989), tag question is an additional question after a sentence to seek agreement (p. A16). Krohn (1971) mentions the procedure of tagging into three steps. Firstly, negative tag questions follows affirmative statements, or in the contrary, affirmative tag questions follow negative

   

statements. Secondly, if a form of be or an auxiliary (e.g. can, has, does) occurs in the statement part, it is repeated in the tag. Thirdly, if there is no auxiliary in the first part, do or does (or do not or does not) appears in the tag (p. 267). For examples John is here, isn’t it? and Mary isn’t here, is she? and the response are Yes, he is and No, he isn’t (Krohn, 1971, p. 267).

2.1.4.10 Preposition

Burton (1982) states that preposition means “placed before” (p. 135). He mentions that it is used with noun or pronoun to show relationship between persons or things or actions (p. 135). He further mentions preposition to be followed by noun or pronoun as accusative (or objective) case (p. 135). For example The mayor sent a letter to him and me. It, indeed, can be followed by personal pronoun, e.g. He sent a message to me.

2.1.4.11 Expletive ‘There’

The expletive there is different from the adverb there, which is used to indicate place (Krohn, 1971, p. 148). For example There’s a book there. There at the beginning functions as expletive, while there at the end functions as an adverbial of place (Krohn, 1971, p. 148).

2.2 Theoretical Framework

In this part, the researcher elaborated some theories underlying this research. Norrish (1983) cited “anomalous language behavior” includes error, mistake, or lapse (pp. 7-9). It helped the researcher to understand the underlying

   

principle of errors and to select the proper term for the deviancy. The researcher selected the term error to be the representatives of any anomalous behavior as proposed by Norrish (1983) though the researcher did not strive to know whether or not the respondents have learnt the information of morphological and syntactic rules.

Research analysis involved classification of errors. In order to help researcher organize the findings, the theory of linguistic category taxonomy proposed by Dulay et al. (1982) was employed in the process of classifying errors according to its categories before analysis. This theory allowed for unrestricted categorization of errors, and therefore the categorization was chosen based on the existence of errors that the respondent’s made.

Another theory that corresponds to errors was Richards’ (1974) theory which underlined intralingual errors; they are overgeneralization, incomplete application of rules, ignorance of rules restrictions, and false hypothesized concept. This became the underlying theory to design checklist. Its function was to help the researcher classify errors into those four categories in the checklist.

Apart from the theory of errors, the researcher provided some theories related to grammar. Since the areas of research are in the field on morphology and syntax, the researcher provided theories about morphological phenomena as proposed by O’Grady (1997). There are many types of morphological phenomena mentioned by O’Grady; they are affixation, internal change, compounding, and so forth. However, the researcher provided a huge portion to talk about the theory of one phenomenon (i.e. affixation) because this research emphasized on English

   

inflectional affixation and English derivational affixation as the most commonly occurred morphological phenomenon.

Another theory corresponding to grammar is syntax, such as definition of syntax as proposed by Finch (2005), and some other theories within syntax by multiple authors such as transformation by O’Grady (1997), complement options by Warriner (1982), the auxiliary systems by Radford (1997a), phrase structure by Roberts (1964), and still many others. Since there are various types of syntactic phenomena, the theories mentioned in theoretical descriptions were selected based on the most commonly occurred syntactic errors occurred in speaking. The researcher then added other theories based on the findings of syntactic errors during the process data classification. These elaborated morphological and syntactic theories were functional in (1) limiting the area of analysis in the field of morphology and syntax and (2) providing a clear reference and guidance to make the analysis accurate.

32   

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents detailed discussion about the methodology employed in this research. The discussion consists of six subdivisions, namely research method, research setting, research participant, research instrument and data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure.

3.1 Research Method

This research employed a descriptive research. Through a descriptive research, the researcher described and interpreted the data. It was a non-experimental research and the researcher had no role in controlling the variables or manipulating the data. Descriptive research is also called as qualitative research. Best (1977) states that descriptive research involves the description, recording, analysis, or interpretations toward a particular condition that are already occurred even though without any observation or analysis and that are related to the present condition (p. 25). Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) elaborate the definition of qualitative method as below:

The prototypical qualitative methodology is an ethnographic study in which the researchers do not set out to test hypotheses, but rather to observe what is present with their focus, and consequently the data, free to vary during the course of the observation (p. 11).

In order to answer the two problems stated in the first chapter, the researcher employed document analysis. Document analysis, sometimes known as, content analysis deals with the systematic examination of current records or documents as

   

sources of data (Best, 1977, p. 129). The use of documents was appropriate since the documents employed in this research were factual data; that is the Micro Teaching students’ speech transcripts in their natural teaching.

3.2 Research Setting

This research selected Micro Teaching class students of the academic year 2010/2011 of English Language Education Study Program. It was conducted in Sanata Dharma University. The process from permission up to collecting research samples, which were video recordings, was held at the end of April until the middle of June in 2011. The research results analysis ended on April 2012.

3.3 Research Participants

The research respondents were sixth semester students of English Language Education Research Program of the academic year 2010 /2011. It was not feasible to conduct a research over the whole population of English Language Education research Program for the research because it is money, time, and energy wasted. Therefore, the researcher took representatives by selecting members of 1 (one) Micro Teaching class from 7 (seven) Micro teaching classes in ELESP for the research samples. A population is “the entire group that is of interest of the research”, however, “a sample is the subgroup taken from the population to represent it” (Brown, 1991, p. 114). This samples selection, according to Ary, Jacobs, and Razavieh (2002), was referred to as cluster sampling because it “study subjects in naturally occurring groups, or cluster” and “the unit chosen is not an individual but a group of individuals who are naturally together” (p. 175). Using

   

this sampling, the researcher selected a group of people as the research samples without having to access to list the respondent one by one to be the research samples. In this research, the researcher selected 19 respondents belonging to a single Micro Teaching class to be the representatives of the whole population of Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011. It was expected that the result of the samples could holistically represent accurately the picture or understanding of the population and the generalization based on the data obtained. In addition, cluster sampling is a more convenient tool to save time and energy for the researcher to collect samples.

The background reason for the selection of the population was the fact that the respondents had conducted Micro Teaching. Through this Micro Teaching experience, it was expected that they act as seemingly a native or near-native speaker before entering actual teaching practices in schools, known as Program

Pengalaman Lapangan (PPL).

3.4 Instruments and Data Gathering Technique

This research employed three main instruments to gain the data, namely human as instrument and the transcript. They were as follows.

1. Human as instrument

According to Ary, Jacob, and Razavieh (2002), “human investigator is the primary instrument for the gathering and analyzing of data” (p. 424). Ary et al. (2002) write that human instrument is the only one who is capable in the inquiry; that is talking with people in the setting, observes their activities, reads their

   

documents and written records, and records their information in field notes and journals (p. 424). In this case, the researcher played an important role in the process of data gathering; that was listening to the Micro Teaching students’ speech and transcribing it into written form. From the written from, the researcher found the syntactical and morphological errors to be analyzed.

2. The transcripts

Bogdan (2003) has mentioned document to refer to materials such as photographs, videos, films, memos, letters, diaries, clinical case records, and memorabilia of all sorts that can be used as either supplementary or primary source of data (p. 57). Collecting data through analyzing the document which were Micro Teaching students’ speech’ transcripts aimed at obtaining detailed evidence of the morphological and syntactic errors production in spoken English. Their recorded teaching performances were in the natural setting on how they conducted Micro Teaching. These were taken without the presence of the researcher, thus Micro Teaching students were not disturbed and they were not aware that their performances were being observed and analyzed.

3.5 Data Analysis Technique

The data was described and interpreted to obtain result of the research. The analysis technique was through various steps. They were as follows.

1. Transcription

To start analyzing the data, the researcher first transcribed the recording into written form. The transcription was carried out in order to help the researcher

   

observe the errors. The transcribed data were emphasized on the respondents’ speaking production. Nevertheless, it did not exclude the simulated students’ speaking production. Through the transcripts, the researcher then identified and highlighted the observable errors to be processed further.

2. Classification

It included two classifications. Firstly, the researcher sorted the error into categories according to the type it belonged, such as word formation, preposition, the auxiliary systems, transformation, the English structure pattern, passive sentences, gerund and infinitives, and also conjunctions. Afterwards, it was subdivided into smaller categories, for example word formation was subcategorized into incorrect simple past, incorrect past participle, incorrect third person singular, and so forth. These categories of errors mentioned earlier were decided from the presence of errors that Micro Teaching class students produced. The more obvious example of morphological and syntactical errors classification can be seen in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 The Classification of Errors and Their Examples

Types Subtypes Example of

Learners’ errors

Percentage per subtype (%)

Percentage per type (%) Word

Formation

Simple past tense incorrect Progressive misformation

Preposition

Superfluous use of preposition Omission of preposition

etc.

   

Secondly, the researcher employed checklist as a tool in the classification of sources of errors. Richard (1974) proposed four kinds of sources of errors. They are overgeneralization, incomplete application of rules, ignorance of rules restriction, and falsely hypothesized concepts. The checklist can be seen in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Sources of Errors Checklist

No Errors

Sources of Errors Overgeneralization

Incomplete Application

of Rules

Ignorance of Rules Restriction

Falsely Hypothesized

Concepts 1. A

2. B

3. C

Etc

In the process of classifying errors into the four categories of sources of errors, the researcher made use of certain criteria adapted from Richard (1974). The first is overgeneralization. Errors belonging to this category are those which the construction comes from the application of a previously learned rule for a new situation which it does not apply. Any incorrect construction which is influenced by another similar construction belongs to this category. Errors belonging to this category are as follows.

Incorrect use of has/have, are/is, this/these/those, a(n)/the, do/does

Wrong selection of verbs (i.e. infinitive, past, or past participle) to suit with the tense aspect

Overgeneralized affixation of -s for singular noun, noncount noun, and for verb after singular third person.

   

The use of double verbs

The use of declarative word order for question word order or vice versa The second is incomplete application of rules. Any errors belonging to this category are those which were not constructed completely. There was a missing of a linguistic element which should exist in a correct construction of Standard English. The incomplete construction is regarded as an error since it deviates from standardized English rules of syntax and morphology. Errors belonging to this category are as follows.

A missing of functional categories, such as suffix -s, auxiliary, determiners, etc

A missing of lexical categories, such as noun as subject or verb

The third one is ignorance of rules restriction. These errors occurred because the respondents did not thoroughly understand about the restriction of rules in English. In other words, there is a specific case where a particular strategy does not apply for common situations. In this case, overgeneralization and ignorance of rules restriction have a slight difference in its definition. However, errors which do not belong to the category of overgeneralization are categorized into ignorance of rules restriction. Errors belonging to this category are as follows.

The use of article before particular nouns such as name of streets, name of people, most of countries, plural nouns and noncount nouns.

Wrong use of possessive pronoun or subject pronoun Wrong use and double use of preposition

   

Wrong application of conjunctions, passive structures, subjunctives, etc. The last one is false hypothesized concept. Errors belonging to this category occur because the respondents made such errors because of their miscomprehension in the process of acquiring the English rules. This miscomprehension results in a deviant morphological and syntactical construction from Standard English. One example of this category is a wrong understanding of the word happen as transitive verb.

Table 3.3 The Frequency Distribution of the Sources of Errors

By using such criteria, the errors were sorted out to what possible source of errors it belonged. Through the checklist, the researcher got the frequency distribution of sources of errors. This calculation showed the majority sources of errors, which answer the research second question. The frequency distribution of the sources of errors is seen in Table 3.3.

3. Counting

Having organized into tables as seen in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2, the data then were calculated into percentage. Since there were two problems formulated in chapter 1, the calculation included two; (1) the classification of error types; and (2) the calculation of the frequency distribution of sources of errors. The

No Sources of Errors Percentage (%)

1. Over-generalization

2. Incomplete Application of Rules 3. Ignorance of Rules Restriction 4. Falsely Hypothesized Concepts

one person, so you don’t have to write this. Ga’ papa kalo misalnya kamu ga’ perlu memberikan ini kepada orang lain, ya tidak apa-apa ga’ usah dipake and this “from secretary” who is secretary? Give the name. Good…good...good. “From secretary of Kacang Garuda”. Who is the name of the secretary, Lisa? Make sure that you mention the name. “Meeting” is double with ee not “meating”. Yes, good. Okay! Oh.. yes… I’m sorry, but actually you don’t have to mention Miss Secretary, Ivon in brackets secretary. But it’s good. (Reading)… yes, good. It’s very good. So, I can see that you’re a fast learners in here. I’m sure you will have a brighter future. Before we close this class, I have a homework for you. This is actually a simple homework, so the homework will be you have to make a memo on your own information. It’s formal. It should be formal and you can do it at here. Okay? So, do you understand now what is a memo? And how to write a memo? Ss: yes. T: Okay then, thank you for your attention and cooperation and I’ll see you again next week. Thank you… good bye…

Participant C

T: Good morning class. Ss: Morning. T: since this is the first class of today, I invite you to stand up and pray with me. Okay? I also want to inform you that one of our friends had an accident last Saturday, Miss Ivon, please pray for her so she can join us again in this class. Okay, let’s start our prayer… begin. Finish. You may sit. How’re you today? Ss: Fine. T: How’re you today? Ss: Fine. T: Please come in Riska, come in. S: I’m sorry Miss, I’m late. Okay… That’s okay… come in. You may sit down. Is everybody buddy? Ss: Yes. T: Eee if I’m not mistaken, last week I assign you find any information about appointment. And now, I will see your findings. Is one of you know what appointment is? Come on… or I will choose one of you. Oh, perhaps Windru wants to tell us what is appointment. What’s your finding? S: I think… T: Wait..wait…wait…wait. I can’t hear you. S: Yes. Sometimes, I make eee appointment with my friends if I want to eee I want to meet her and then I want to eee eee invite him to hang out. Eee… wait another definition or another friend, please. Mr. Yustian, what do you know about appointment? S: Appointment is like an agreement, agreement between two people and making some event together like we plan to have football match or any other and… that’s appointment. T: Oh, Yes. Actually class, eee you have misunderstood between invitation and appointment. Actually according Cambridge dictionary, appointment is a formal agreement, so it’s formal, which takes certain time and place. The time usually included the date, day, and time. Is that clear? So it’s not just inviting your friends. It usually in a formal…in formal occasion. And now eee I last week also assign you to find eee common expression that used in appointment, right? Okay, to make it quickly, I will divide you into several group, this is group I, group 2, group 3, group 4, and group 5. One group

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should tell us one example of making appointment and one example of canceling appointment. Is that clear? Ss: yes. T: start to be with your friends and later we will discuss. One expression, just one expression. One example of making and one example of canceling. I think it’s enough because we already spent 5 minutes on discussing this. Can I have your attention, please? Ss: Yes. T: I’d like to start from the group in the back. Please one of you tell us…one example of making appointment and one example of canceling appointment. S: Okay, for eee making appointment, for example me and Yus want to go to movie and I want to say... “Yus, can we go at 5,” for example. Is it acceptable? T: what do you think? This is invitation or appointment? Ss: Invitation. T: So, switch for another one. How about the canceling appointment? S: I’m sorry to cancel the appointment. T: Yes, very good. That’s one of good example of canceling appointment. From another group…from this group, Tania’s group. S: eee for example if I ask one of my friends to come to a meeting, “Would you like to come to a meeting?” T: Yes, very good. Okay, for canceling? S: I’m sorry. I’m eee because…I’m sorry I can’t…eh I’m afraid I can’t because I have another meeting. T: Excellence, very good. Very good example from Tania’s group. Now, from Vany’s group. S: We decided that we make an appointment to have lunch together…to cancel…to cancel the appointment, “I’m sorry I cannot come.” T: Okay, that’s also can be used for canceling appointment. T: Now, Ika’s group. S: Can I meet at seven o’clock tomorrow? T: for canceling. S: I’m really sorry because tonight I have to meet my girlfriend. T: So you cancel your appointment to meet your girlfriend? Oh…so sweet. Now, last group…from this group. S: making appointment eee for example dear Miss Liza…I sent sms… T: Okay. S: Dear miss Lisa…Do you have plan tomorrow? Because I’d like to see and do the interview. T: Good. For canceling, so how you cancel? S: to cancel…I invite my friend to come to a lunch with me and I cancel because I had a lunch…”I’m sorry I had a lunch”. T: Okay. So, today’s topic is about making and canceling appointment. And today we will focus on listening section. Now I will distribute the handout first. Has everybody got one? Make sure that your paper is back to back. This is the first page and this is the second page. Now, I will explain. There are three part of this listening; task 1, task 2, and task 3. There are have three different recording… and can we direct to do listening task 1? All you have to do is listen the sentence and decide what the person is making or canceling appointment. If the person is making, please put the check in this column and if it is the person cancels appointment, please put a tag in this column. Is that clear for everybody? Ss: Yes. T: wait a moment. First of all, I’d like to check the voice is too loud or too low. (Listening) make sure that everybody can hear this voice. Can you hear Mr. Yus? Tiana, can you hear? Can we start now? Ss: Yes. T: Start listening. Ss: (listening). T: Is that easy? Ss: Yes T: Can we discuss now? Ss: Yes. T: Who wants to be a volunteer for number 1.

Okay…Mr Adam, please. S: Making an appointment. T: “are you available to discuss our project this afternoon?” Yes, you’re right. This is the expression how to make an appointment. Mr. Adam, choose one of your friends. Make sure from this side. Vany? Okay… Miss vany. S: Number 2…canceling an appointment. T: Yes. “I’m afraid that I have to cancel our appointment”. So, it’s canceling appointment. Please choose one from this side. Lisa? Miss Lisa. S: Number 3…making an appointment. T: Yes. “Can I meet you to discuss the project?” So it’s making appointment. Miss Lisa, please choose one of your friends from this side. Miss Lisa. S: Number 4…making an appointment? T: Yes. Right. “I’d like to make an appointment for a project meeting”. It’s making… expression of making appointment. Miss Lisa please choose one of your friend from this side. Ika? Which Ika; Ika Rityas or another Ika? Please number 5. S: Canceling an appointment. T: Yes. “Unfortunately I won’t be able to keep our appointment”. Choose one of your friends! Miss Ika… Oh another Ika. S: Canceling an appointment. “Well, I’m really sorry but something urgent suddenly come up”. Canceling. Choose...Agatha..S: making an appointment. “When we met to discuss the project?” Ratna. Miss Ratna? Yes the last number S: Canceling appointment. T: Yes… “ I’m afraid I’m not going to be able to meet you”. No mistake. Very good. One mistake? Okay that’s still very good. Two mistake? Three mistake? More than 4? No. very good. Excellence. Now let’s take a look to the 2nd part of this section. All you have to do just fill in the blank with the suitable expression that u hear from the recording. There are dialogues in that’s… in your worksheet and there are the dialogues between Colane and Mr. Brown. They will asking and canceling appointment. Is that the instruction clear? Ss: Yes. T: Wait… are you ready? Ss: Yes. T: I can’t hear you. Ss: Yes, Miss. T: Very Good. (Listening). Okay then. Now, can we check it now? Yes. I’d like to invite mmmm Mr. Boni as Claire and Mr. Rio as Mr. Brown. (Reading). Mr. Boni, choose one of your friends! Mr. Rio choose one of your friend! Mr. Lara as Claire and Mr as the Brown (reading). Are you sure that it’s “what about”. The answer is “what do you say?” Yes. What do you say? Next. Mr. Adam choose one of your friend! Tyas as the Claire. Mr. Yus? Miss Via as Mr. Brown. Okay? (Reading). Very good excellence. Now please Miss Tyas, choose one of your friend. And Miss Via choose one of your friend! Miss Ika. (Reading). Yes. I’m afraid I can’t. Very good. Now let’s move on to the last section of this listening. This listening is only two minutes and twenty one second. All you have to do is fill the blank in the column eee fill the date, time, and place. Okay? Are you ready? Are you ready? Ss: Yes Miss. (Listening) Is that difficult? It’s ok. Let’s discuss it together. I’d like to Miss Agata. Please show us your answer no 1. Listen to Miss Agatha please! (A student is reading the answer). Okay, now...I’d like to invite Miss Gresiana. Yes in the living room and there is no date in this passage. The person

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just mention at Wednesday. Now, number three, I’d like to invite Siana. Yes, very good; excellent Miss Siana. Now the last number, I invite, ok Mr Yus, number four. Yes because there is no mention any place there. Ok. Now we already done all the exercises. But before we end our class, I’d like to check your understanding on this subject. Ok, now Mr. Rio, what is appointment? And now Miss Tyas, give me one example how to make an appointment? Yes, Ok. And how to cancel it, Miss Tania? Ok. That’s ok. Very good. But now I think you already achieve your goal for today; you already know how to differentiate making and canceling; you can find informal information in the making and canceling appointment; and you also know what appointment is. Very good. Well done. Thank you for your cooperation today and see you next week. Ss: See you Miss.

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ABSTRACT

Kartikasari, Fransiska Novi (2012). Syntactic and Morphological Errors Analysis in Spoken English of Micro Teaching Students of the Academic Year 2010/2011. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

One aspect to show quality in the mastery of English is grammar accuracy. As mentioned in Write Well, Improving Writing Skills, Bram (1995) mentions that English Department students must follow the rules of English standard and avoid making any grammatical errors whenever they speak or write (p. 54). However, in the learning development itself, ELESP students as members of English department often produce ungrammatical utterances. Contrastively, as English teachers, they are supposed to grasp the knowledge of English grammar and to be models of responsible English users; that is to use it accurately, appropriately, and meaningfully. Therefore, it is essential to find out some types of errors they produce as well as the possible sources of errors.

There were two research questions presented in this research, namely (1) what are the types of syntactic and morphological errors produced by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011? and (2) what are the possible causes of errors made by Micro Teaching students of the academic year 2010/2011?

In order to answer those two questions, the researcher conducted document analysis to find out the errors made by the respondents. The documents were the 19 respondents’ teaching transcripts. The errors found were then classified into several categories based on the linguistic category taxonomy, where the errors were classified according to the language components, and then check-listed into the four classifications of sources of errors proposed by Richards (1977),which are overgeneralization, incomplete application or rules, ignorance of rules restriction, and false hypothesized concept.

From the data gathered the biggest share went for word formation and consecutively followed by the auxiliary system, English sentence structure, prepositions, transformations, conjunctions, passive sentences, dan gerund and infinitive. The checklist revealed that a major cause of errors belonged to incomplete application of rules, where most of the errors were due to the missing of language elements belonging to both lexical categories and functional categories. This fact showed that the syntactic and morphological errors which the respondents produced were in a positive learning; according to Richards (1974), errors belonging to this category represent the degree of their learning to produce grammatical constructions. After finding out the errors and the possible sources of errors, the researcher proposed some recommendations to lecturers, students, and further researchers who are interested in this topic.

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ABSTRAK

Kartikasari, Fransiska Novi (2012). Syntactic and Morphological Errors Analysis in Spoken English of Micro Teaching Students of the Academic Year 2010/2011. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Kualitas penguasaan Bahasa Inggris salah satunya ditentukan oleh ketepatan pengunaan grammar. Seperti yang tertulis dalam buku Write Well, Improving Writing Skills, Bram (1995) menyatakan bahwa siswa jurusan Bahasa Inggris harus menggunakan Bahasa Inggris sesuai aturan standar serta menghindari membuat kesalahan gramatikal ketika berbicara maupun menulis. Seiring dengan perkembangan pembelajarannya, mahasiswa Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris (PBI) sebagai anggota dari jurusan bahasa sering memproduksi pola ucapan yang tidak gramatikal. Padahal, sebagai guru Bahasa Inggris, mereka diharapkan mampu untuk menjadi model pengguna Bahasa Inggris yang bertanggung jawab, yakni dengan menggunakan Bahasa Inggris secara tepat, akurat, dan bermakna. Oleh karena itu, beberapa tipe kesalahan yang muncul berikut penyebabnya menjadi penting untuk dipelajari.

Ada dua pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini, yakni (1) Tipe-tipe kesalahan dalam sintak dan morfologi apa saja yang muncul saat siswa melakukan praktek mengajar mikro? dan (2) Apa penyebab terbesar kesalahan grammatical yang muncul saat siswa melakukan praktek mengajar mikro?

Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan tersebut, peneliti melakukan analisa dokumen. Hal ini bertujuan untuk mencari tahu kesalahan yang dibuat oleh responden. Dokumen tersebut berupa transkrip rekaman praktek mengajar dari 19 mahasiswa. Kesalahan yang ditemukan kemudian dikategorikan berdasarkan

linguistic category taxonomy, dimana peneliti dapat mengklasifikasikan kesalahan berdasarkan komponen-komponen bahasa, dan jga dikategorikan kemudian berdasarkan keempat klasifikasi penyebab kesalahan oleh Richards (1977).

Berdasarkan data yang diperoleh, kesalahan terbesar masuk dalam kategori word formation, dan secara berurutan diikuti oleh auxiliary system, English sentence structure, prepositions, transformations, conjunctions, passive sentences, dan gerund and infinitive. Hasil dari checklist menunjukkan bahwa penyebab kesalahan terbesar adalah incomplete application of rules, yakni hilangnya salah satu elemen bahasa yang masuk dalam kategori leksikal and fungsional. Kenyataan ini menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan responden merupakan suatu wujud pembelajaran positif. Menurut Richards (1974), keberadaan ini mengindikasikan suatu peningkatan pembelajaran untuk dapat menghasilkan pola ucapan yang gramatikal. Setelah mengetahui kesalahan yang muncul berikut penyebabnya, peneliti mengajukan beberapa rekomendasi bagi pengajar, mahasiswa, serta peneliti lain yang tertarik pada bidang ini.