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2.2.2.2 Sound Parallelism, which suggests a connection of meaning through
an echo of form, does not have to be grammatical parallelism. It may be a sound parallelism as in the rhyme, rhythm and other sound effects
of verse.
Leisure W.H. Davies
What is this life, if, full of care, We have no time to stand and stare,
No time to see, when woods we pass, Where squirrels hide their nuts in grass,
No time to see, in broad daylight, Streams full of stars, like
skies at night …
Simon and Schuster, 1966
The stanzas of this poem are linked through the same rhyme scheme, aa, the same sound pattern or rhythm and the same stanza
form, couplet.
2.2.2.3 Semantic Parallelism, The semantic parallelism happens when the
sentences are linked because they mean the same thing. Study the following example:
‘… I oppose all forms of cruelty to animals. I hope all of humankind will realize that animals are living creatures and have a certain degree of intelligence. We
are not the only intelligent beings on earth, even though we think we are gifted ones and masters of the other animals. Animals do communicate with one
another in ways that we do not know or cannot decipher. And they sometimes display kindness, loyalty and love better than humans. Let us respect all living
creatures on earth…’
Taken from Reader’s Digest, March 2005, page 6
The above sentences are connected as they reveal the same meaning, that we should pay a better respect to animals.
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2.2.3 Referring Expressions
Referring expressions mean words of which the meaning can only discovered by referring to other words or to elements of the context which are
clear to both sender and receiver. 1 Anaphoric ref.: The identity of someone or something is given once at the beginning, and thereafter referred to with
pronouns. 2 Cataphoric ref.: The pronouns are given first and then the identity is revealed. 3 Exophoric ref.: The meaning is found contextually
from the outside world. Referring expressions fulfill a dual purpose of unifying the text they depend upon some of the subject matter remaining the
same and of economy, because they save us from having to repeat the identity of what we are talking about again and again Cook, 1994. Consider the
following example:
‘There are an estimated 195,000 elephants left in Central Africa, but their distribution is patchy. Throughout the region, they have been heavily poached, so they
tend to be nervous of people. If we come across one unexpectedly, it may well charge. And if we do not get out of the way in time we will probably be killed- speared on its
tusks, thrown around like a rag doll, then trampled into the ground. Some have lived to tee the tale, but they have impressive scars to go with their stories…’
Taken from Reader’s Digest, September 2004, page 48
The meanings of they, their, them, it, and it are referred to elephants as the identity of elephants is given at the beginning. This makes a kind of chain,
running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another.
2.2.4 Repetition and Lexical Chains
Another sort of chain may include repetition of words and their synonymous or more general words or phrases. Whereas lexical chains need
