A STUDY OF FORMAL LINKS IN WILLA CATHER'S DOUBLE BIRTHDAY.

A STUDY OF FORMAL LINKS IN WILLA CATHER’S DOUBLE BIRTHDAY

THESIS

Submitted as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Sarjana Degree of English Department Faculty of Arts and Humanities

State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya

By: Fikri Ghozali Reg. Number: A83212161

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF SUNAN AMPEL

SURABAYA 2016

ABSTRACT

Ghozali, Fikri. 2016. A Formal Link Analysis in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday. Thesis. English Department. Faculty of Arts and Humanities. State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya. Thesis Advisor: Prof. Dr. Hj. Zuliati Rohmah, M.Pd.

Key words: Formal Links, Short Story, Double Birthday

This research is focused on analyzing the formal links in the Double Birthday short story by Willa Cather. The formal link is a way of getting text hang together or has unity. It is also considered to help the readers to be able to recognize correct and incorrect sentences. So, the text of short story is chosen as the data source of this research. Furthermore, Double Birthday is chosen since there are formal links in every paragraph. This study analyzed the types of formal links and the functions of formal links in the short story. For that reason, this study is intended to describe the types of formal links used in the Double Birthday short story and describe the functions of formal links functions in the short story.

This research uses descriptive qualitative research method in which the data are taken from the text of Double Birthday short story. All of the data are

going to be analyzed based on Guy Cook’s theory of formal links. The findings of

the study on the formal links show the all types of formal links: verb form, parallelism, referring expression, repetition, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction used in the text of short story. The researcher finds that every paragraph used referring expressions. The function of verb form in one sentence can influence and limit the verb form in the next sentence, so it makes an interesting and logically connected the sentence. For parallelism is to connect two clauses or two sentences by repeating the word from one clause or sentence to another. Referring expression is used to indicate the reference pronoun. Repetition is used to make stressing and decrease the ambiguity in the text of short story while substitution and ellipsis are to make the sentence simpler and more efficient, and the conjunction is used to indicate cause and effect relationship, contrasting information, causation and also to add more information.

From those findings, the theory of Guy Cook in formal link is expected to give contribution on readers who have difficulties in understanding some text and make a good text become a lot of easier. This research is useful for teachers, students, and all of the English learners who intense to construct their ability to know a fact inside language or formal link in writing. And for further research, it would be better to use different focus theory and more interesting as the object of the study.

ABSTRAK

Ghozali, Fikri. 2016. A Formal Link Analysis in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday. Skripsi. Sastra Inggris. Fakultas Adab dan Humaniora. Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel Surabaya. Pembimbing: Prof. Dr. Hj. Zuliati Rohmah, M.Pd.

Kata Kunci: Formal Links, Short Story, Double Birthday

Penelitian ini difokuskan pada analisis formal link dalam cerita pendek Double Birthday oleh Willa Cather. Formal link dapat membantu teks memiliki kesatuan. Ini bisa membantu pembaca mengenali mana kalimat yang benar dan salah. Jadi, teks cerita pendek dipilih sebagai sumber data penelitian ini. Selanjutnya, Double Birthday dipilih karena terdapat formal link dalam setiap paragraf. Penelitian ini menganalisis jenis formal link dan fungsi formal link dalam cerita pendek. Untuk itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan jenis formal link yang digunakan dalam cerita pendek Double Birthday dan menjelaskan fungsi dari formal link dalam cerita pendek.

Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian deskriptif kualitatif dimana data diambil dari teks cerita pendek Double Birthday. Semua data akan dianalisis berdasarkan teori Guy Cook link formal. Temuan dari studi pada formal link menunjukkan semua jenis formal link: verb form, parallelism, referring expressions, repetition, substitution, ellipsis, dan conjunction yang digunakan dalam teks cerita pendek. Peneliti menemukan bahwa setiap paragraf terdapat referring expressions. Fungsi dari verb form dalam satu kalimat dapat mempengaruhi dan membatasi bentuk kata kerja dalam kalimat berikutnya, sehingga membuat kalimat yang menarik dan terhubung secara logis. Untuk parallelism adalah menghubungkan dua klausa atau dua kalimat dengan mengulang kata dari satu klausa atau kalimat yang lain. Referring expressions digunakan untuk menunjukkan kata ganti referensi. Repetition digunakan untuk membuat penekanan dan mengurangi ambiguitas dalam teks cerita pendek. Sementara substitution dan ellipsis membuat kalimat sederhana dan lebih efisien, dan conjunction digunakan untuk menunjukkan hubungan sebab dan akibat, informasi kontras, sebab-akibat dan juga untuk menambah informasi lebih lanjut.

Dari temuan tersebut, teori Guy Cook formal link diharapkan dapat memberikan kontribusi pada pembaca yang memiliki kesulitan dalam memahami teks dan membuat teks yang baik menjadi lebih mudah. Penelitian ini berguna bagi guru, siswa, dan semua pelajar bahasa Inggris yang kuat untuk membangun kemampuan mereka untuk mengetahui fakta dalam bahasa atau formal link secara tertulis. Dan untuk penelitian lebih lanjut, akan lebih baik untuk menggunakan fokus teori yang berbeda dan lebih menarik sebagai objek penelitian.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover ... i

Inside Cover ... ii

Declaration ... iii

Approval Sheet ... iv

Examiner Sheet ... v

Motto ... vi

Dedication ... vii

Acknowledgement ... viii

Table of Contents ... ix

Abstract ... xi

Abstrak ... xii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1 Background of Study... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ... 5

1.3 Objectives of the Study ... 5

1.4 Significance of the Study ... 6

1.5 Scope and Limitation ... 6

1.6 Definition of the Key Terms ... 6

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ... 8

2.1 Discourse Analysis ... 8

2.2 Formal Links ... 8

2.2.1 Verb Form ... 9

2.2.2 Parallelism ... 10

2.2.3 Referring Expressions... 12

2.2.5 Substitution ... 13

2.2.6 Ellipsis ... 14

2.2.7 Conjunction ... 14

2.3 Double Birthday ... 15

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD ... 16

3.1 Research Design ... 16

3.2 Data and Data Source ... 17

3.3 Instrument ... 17

3.4 Data Collection ... 18

3.5 Data Analysis ... 19

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 24

4.1. Findings ... 24

4.1.1 Kinds of Formal Links ... 24

4.1.2 Functions of Formal Links ... 37

4.2 Discussions ... 49

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ... 52

5.1 Conclusion ... 52

5.2 Suggestion ... 54

REFERENCES ... 55

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents introduction of study consisting of background of the study, research question, research objectives, significance of the research, scope and limitations, and definition of the key terms.

1.1 Background of the Study

Cook’s theory of formal links reinforces the unity of the discourse. Some researchers already conducted researches about formal links, for instance: English reading text of examination (Kulsum, 2008), English translation text of Shahih Bukhari (Maharlika, 2010), and absolutely literary works like short story can be included. A short story is shorter than a novel, the authors sometimes make sentences with brevity and succinct form. Short story also gives difficult sentences, because it can be lyrical. That makes sentences difficult to understand. This present study intends to fill in this gap to make short story easier to understand.

Short story is one of literary works. It is a brief work of prose fiction, and most of the terms for analyzing the component elements, the types, and the various narrative techniques of the novel are applicable to the short story as well (Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms p:286). Short story is a piece of fiction that has a limited number of words, only a few characters and one theme. Short story is a kind of story shorter that a novel or a novelette. Characteristically

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developing a single central theme and limited in scope and number of characters (Webster’s New World College Dictionary).

Commonly, people who love reading fill their leisure time by reading a short story. Sometimes they need to learn to understand the text, because the language in a short story is not easy and simple. There are many possible interpretation of a text by different people in this world. In order to explain what exactly the meaning of the text is, we need to analyze the text. Sometimes we need to look at features inside the language or we can call it formal links that refers to facts inside language. We can do this through knowledge of our grammar in some text. In this case, the way we recognize whether sentences are correct or incorrect is different. Misunderstanding might occur in reading and comprehending some text since they have different way to recognize sentence whether is correct or incorrect.

In this study, the writer focused on monologue and dialogue which are regarded as the text of short story to avoid misunderstanding. A short story contains any information of formal links which are interesting to analyze. The writer used Guy Cook theory in 1994, Cook states that we can describe the two ways of approaching language as contextual, referring to facts outside language, and formal, referring to facts inside language. In approaching language is not easy as it looks. It is not simply a sequence of sentences or utterances (the form) by which a sender communicates a message to a receiver (the function) (Renkema, 1993). Contextual features are somewhere outside this physical realization of the language. Stretches of language treated only formally are referred to as text. The

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formal link is a way of getting text hang together or has unity. “Formal link between sentences or clauses is known as cohesive devices”, (Cook, 1989, p.14). “Analysis of cohesive links within a text gives us some insight into how writers structure what they want to say, and may be crucial factors in our judgments on whether something is well-written or not” (Yule, 1985, p.106). The writer is interested in choosing formal links because, it has considered helping the readers to be able to recognize correct and incorrect sentences whether the text is well-written or not. The kinds of formal links are; verb forms, parallelism, referring expressions, repetition and lexical chains, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction (Cook, 1989). Formal links can help well in communication and language learning. Formal links are needed in order to enable the reader to comprehend the meaning of the text.

In this study, the writer is interested in choosing the Willa Cather’s Double Birthday as his source of data. This short story is one of the best American short stories. Willa Cather has a unique trick in writing short story. She uses brilliant details and human understanding in one tidy paragraph. So many short stories made by Cather, but the writer takes one of them the success one that is Double Birthday 1929. The writer considers the short story worth analyzing because it contains many formal links existing in the text. The writer has some reasons to choose this text. There are many formal links underlying in each paragraph of the text.

In the same field of discourse, the writer analyzes formal link by Guy Cook’s theory. This study is different from the previous studies, the previous

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studies using English Translation of Shahih Bukhari and English Reading Texts of National Examination of Senior High School (2007 edition) as their object research. The first is Ummi Kulsum from State of Islamic University Malang also “Study of Formal Links used in English Reading Texts of National Examination of Senior High School (2007 edition)” (2008) and the second is Nurma Maharlika from State of Islamic University Malang “An Analysis of Formal Links Used in the English Translation of Shahih Bukhari” (2010).

In both previous studies, the first writer focuses on analyzing formal links in English reading section of National Examination 2007 edition. She considers choosing the text of reading of National Examination because she thinks it is important to understand the reading text to help them who held a National Examination. National Examination is a test that is given for students of Senior High School before they pass from the school which is held once a year. The formal links were found included verb form, parallelism, referring expression, repetition, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction that is commonly used in the English reading Text of National Examination of senior High School (2007 edition). She also found the functions of formal links in them.

The second writer chooses the English Translation of Shahih Bukhari because she thinks that there are Arabic words that cannot be translated into English. They usually explain the difficult verses of holy Qur’an to be easier to understand, especially, in Chapter 8 that explains about prayer. There are many variations of formal links than those in other chapters. The researcher thinks that it is very important to study formal links in the written text especially in the

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English translation of Shahih Bukhari. Shahih Bukhari consists of hadiths which are collected by Al-Bukhari.

In the present study, the writer chooses the short story because the writer has an experience of stumbling in problems in understanding literary works such as short story and some students sometimes cannot understand what the author means in the short story. Considering to the reason above, the writer needs to strengthen the importance of this study which discusses formal links in the “Double Birthday” short story.

In conclusion, the writer describes the sentences in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday through Cook’s theory of formal links. Then, the writer identifies it using formal link theory to know what the functions in each kind of formal link in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday.

1.2 Statement of the Problems

Based on background of the study, there are problems related to the study, which leads to the following research question:

1. What are the formal links used in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday? 2. What are the functions of formal links used in Willa Cather’s Double

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study is to find out the answer from the following problems:

1. To describe the kinds of formal links used in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday.

2. To explain the function of formal links in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday.

1.4 Significance of the Study

The significance of this study is the writer wants to discover the use of formal links in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday. The writer hopes to get some advantages and well understanding of language use in a short story text. By knowing formal links, the writer is able to figure out the use of formal links in plain language and share the ideas of the short story to be easier to understand. And, the writer hopes this study may be a reference for the readers to gain knowledge about formal links especially students of State Islamic University of Sunan Ampel Surabaya and the other English Department. The writer hopes this study might get useful in understanding texts and make a good text.

1.5 Scope and Limitation

The scope of this research is an approach in a language with the focus on formal links that found in Willa Cather’s Double Birthday. This writer limits on theory formal links by Cook (1994). The writer limits the data of the kinds of formal links and function that used in the Willa Cather’s Double Birthday.

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1.6 Definition of the Key Terms

Formal Link is a link that can help understand and comprehend texts, from inside the language. Cook states that formal link is referring to facts inside language.

Willa Cather is one of the most important American novelists of the first half of the twentieth century, critics have increasingly identified Cather as a canonical American writer, the peer of authors like Hemingway, Faulkner and Wharton (The Willa Cather Foundation).

Double Birthday is a short story by Willa Cather. It was first published February 1929. This short story is one of the best American short stories of the Century.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Discourse Analysis

According to Cook (1989) there are two different potential objects for study. One abstracted in order to teach a language or literacy, or to study how the rules of language work. The latter kind is language in use, for communication, is called Discourse; and the search for what gives discourse coherence is Discourse Analysis. Discourse analysis is defined as concerned with language use beyond the boundaries of a sentence/utterance, concerned with the interrelationships between language and society and as concerned with the interactive or dialogic properties of daily communication (Slembrouck, 2003).

2.2 Formal Links

In order to account for discourse, we need to look at features outside the language. This fact enables us to construct stretches of language as discourse, as having a meaning and a unity for us. The way we recognize correct and incorrect sentences is different. We can do this through our knowledge of grammar without reference to outside facts. Cook states there are two ways of approaching language that one of them is formal links, referring to facts inside language. A way of understanding may be to think of formal features as in some way built up in our minds from the black marks which form writing or from the speech sounds picked up by our ears. The

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formal features which operate within sentences and across sentences need to be examined how far they will go in helping to explain why a succession of sentences is discourse, and not just a disconnected jumble (Cook, 1994).

This theory is different from cohesive devices by Halliday and Hasan. Cohesive devices are the devices that create relation. These devices function as the formal links between sentences and between clauses. In the other word, cohesive devices of the text or language are tools that is used to the relationship between one part of sentence to another sentences, and one of clause to another clauses in the text. For past and contemporary researchers alike, Cohesion in English (Halliday and Hasan, 1976) has provides an important framework for identifying and analyzing cohesive devices in spoken and written discourse. In their work, Halliday and Hasan specify five types of cohesion: reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. Each cohesive device type consists of several subtypes.

Formal links includes: verb form, parallelism, referring expressions, repetition and lexical chains, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction (Cook, 1994).

2.2.1 Verb Form

A link within discourse may constitute a verb form. The form of the verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the verb form in the next. We may be justified in saying that a verb form in one sentence is ‘wrong’ or at least ‘unlikely’, because it does not fit with the form in another.

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‘When two lovers come together, their brains begin to “fall in love”. The couple’s pheromones- chemical signals that work through our senses- are very high, so when they smell each other or look into each other’s eyes, their separate male and female minds become like one.’

(Taken from Reader’s Digest, February 2005, page 64) From the previous discourse, we can see that the verbs (come, begin, work, smell, look, and become) are all in the simple present since the verbs refer to the general truth- what happens when two people fall in love. There seems to be a formal connection between them, a way in the first tense conditions all the others.

2.2.2 Parallelism

Another link deals with parallelism, a device which suggests a connection, simply because the form of one sentence or clause repeats the form of another. This can be found in speeches, prayers, poetry, and advertisements. It is used to provide a powerful emotional effect to the audience. There are three kinds of parallelism:

2.2.2.1Grammatical parallelism, here a discourse proceeds through a repeated grammatical structure into which different words are slotted (Cook, 1994). Consider the following Christian prayer as an example:

‘Teach us Good Lord, to give and not to count the cost, to fight and not to heed the wounds, to toil and not to seek for rest, to labor and not to ask for reward, save that of knowing that we do Thy will.’

This example employs parallelism to link clauses as there is a repeated grammatical structure (to .. and not to …).

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2.2.2.2Sound Parallelism, which suggests a connection of meaning through an echo of form, does not have to be grammatical parallelism. It may be a sound parallelism as in the rhyme, rhythm and other sound effects of verse.

Leisure

W.H. Davies What is this life, if, full of care,

We have no time to stand and stare, No time to see, when woods we pass, Where squirrels hide their nuts in grass, No time to see, in broad daylight, Streams full of stars, like skies at night … (Simon and Schuster, 1966)

The stanzas of this poem are linked through the same rhyme scheme, aa, the same sound pattern or rhythm and the same stanza form, couplet.

2.2.2.3Semantic Parallelism, The semantic parallelism happens when the sentences are linked because they mean the same thing.

Study the following example:

‘… I oppose all forms of cruelty to animals. I hope all of humankind will realize that animals are living creatures and have a certain degree of intelligence. We are not the only intelligent beings on earth, even though we think we are gifted ones and masters of the other animals. Animals do communicate with one another in ways that we do not know or cannot decipher. And they sometimes display kindness, loyalty and love better than humans. Let us respect all living creatures on earth…’

(Taken from Reader’s Digest, March 2005, page 6) The above sentences are connected as they reveal the same meaning, that we should pay a better respect to animals.

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2.2.3 Referring Expressions

Referring expressions mean words of which the meaning can only discovered by referring to other words or to elements of the context which are clear to both sender and receiver. (1) Anaphoric ref.: The identity of someone or something is given once at the beginning, and thereafter referred to with pronouns. (2) Cataphoric ref.: The pronouns are given first and then the identity is revealed. (3) Exophoric ref.: The meaning is found contextually from the outside world. Referring expressions fulfill a dual purpose of unifying the text (they depend upon some of the subject matter remaining the same) and of economy, because they save us from having to repeat the identity of what we are talking about again and again (Cook, 1994). Consider the following example:

‘There are an estimated 195,000 elephants left in Central Africa, but their distribution is patchy. Throughout the region, they have been heavily poached, so they tend to be nervous of people. If we come across one unexpectedly, it may well charge. And if we do not get out of the way in time we will probably be killed- speared on its tusks, thrown around like a rag doll, then trampled into the ground. Some have lived to tee the tale, but they have impressive scars to go with their stories…’

(Taken from Reader’s Digest, September 2004, page 48) The meanings of they, their, them, it, and it are referred to elephants as the identity of elephants is given at the beginning. This makes a kind of chain, running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another.

2.2.4 Repetition and Lexical Chains

Another sort of chain may include repetition of words and their synonymous or more general words or phrases. Whereas lexical chains need

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not necessarily consist of words that mean the same, they may also be created by words that associate with each other.

We have described referring expressions, repetition, and elegant repetition as establishing `chains´ of connected words running through discourse. Such lexical chains need not necessarily consist of words which mean the same, however. They may also be created by words which associate with each other.

Here is an example:

It is time that we citizens celebrate love instead of hate, celebrate kindness, instead of revenge, and, for once, let us celebrate similarities instead of differences… ‘

(Taken from Reader’s Digest, September 2004, page 6)

Here the clauses are linked through the repetition of ‘celebrate’ and their meanings are synonymous that we are asked to promote virtues rather than violence.

2.2.5 Substitution

Another kind of formal link between sentences is the substitution of words like do or so for a word or group of words which have appeared in an earlier sentence. See the following example:

‘Can there really be such people out there? Aren’t these mass murderers the same people whose mothers once held them in their arms, nurtured them, gave them an education and brought them up to be people of this world? If so, what triggers them to so much destruction?

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Here ‘so’ substitutes the sentences that have appeared earlier. It substitutes the questions about how come people who have been brought up and nurtured by their mothers have become murderers.

2.2.6 Ellipsis

Ellipsis is omitting part of sentences on the assumption that an earlier sentence or the context will make the meaning clear. Sometimes we don´t even need to provide a substitute for a word phrase or which as already been said. We can simply omit it, and know that the missing part can be reconstructed quite successfully. Study the following example:

The Aztecs believed in the periodic destruction and re-creation of the world we live in. The first era was destroyed by tigers, the second by wind that turned people into monkeys, the third by fire that changed people into birds, and the fourth ended in floods that turned people into fish, as can be seen in the middle of the calendar stone. The stone predicts our present era will be destroyed by earthquakes, but no one has yet deciphered when the Aztecs thought the end of the fifth era would be.’

(Taken from Reader’s Digest, March 2005, 21) In this example, there are some words that are omitted because it is clear what the context is, for instance, ‘era’ in ‘the second, the third, etc. 2.2.7 Conjunction

Another type of formal relation between sentences is provided by those words and phrases that explicitly draw attention to the type of relationship that exist between one sentence or clause or another.

a. Adding more information to what has already been said. (furthermore, in addition, etc.)

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b. Elaborating or exemplifying (for instance, other words, etc.)

c. contrasting new information with old information (or, on the other hand, etc.)

d. Relating new information to what has already been given in terms of causes (so, consequently, because, for this reason, etc.)

e. or in terms of time (formerly, then, in the end, etc.)

f. Indicating a new departure or a summary (by the way, well, to sum up, etc.) (Cook, 1994).

There are many words and phrases which can be put into this category in English, and many different ways in which they can be classified. They indicate the relationship of utterances in the mind or in the world and are thus in a way contextual (Cook, 1994).

2.3 Double Birthday

Characters in Double Birthday short story is face mortality, remember the past, and persist in lives lived against the grain of financial success. Albert Engelhardt and his uncle with the same name (hereafter "Albert" and "Uncle Albert"). Fifty-five-year-old Albert has squandered his family’s fortune, and eighty-year-old Uncle Albert, although once a successful throat doctor, gambled all his hope on the voice of one young singer—and lost. Albert and Uncle Albert find meaning in the city by linking together different houses, neighborhoods, and points in history. The story’s houses are all based on places Cather knew, and the motion between them forms the story’s structure (Joseph C. Murphy, 1973).

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD

This part tells about the research approach, technique of data collection and technique of data analysis. The approach of this study is qualitative research. The writer analyzes of the data in the short story to answer statement of the problems.

3.1 Research Design

In this study, the writer used descriptive qualitative method for the research because this study intended to find out formal links in short story.

According to Litosseliti (2010:52) “qualitative research is concerned with

structures and patterns, but quantitative research focuses on how much or how many there are of a particular characteristic or item”. Basically, description used in this qualitative research. Qualitative research is an emergent design in its negotiated outcomes. Meanings and interpretations are negotiated with human data sources because it is the subjects’ realities that the researcher attempts to reconstruct (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam, 1988).

Consider the situation of misunderstanding in reading some texts, the writer conducted content analysis research. Content analysis is a research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the contexts of their use (Krippendorff, 2004). So that, the writer read the text of short story, especially, words, phrases,

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sentences, paragraph as the data of his study. Thus, by knowing formal links the writer is able to figure out the use of formal links in plain language. Furthermore, this study shared the ideas of the short story to be easier to understand.

3.2 Data and Data Source

The writer took a short story that is Double Birthday by Willa Cather as his source of data. The data itself was a transcript of short story Double Birthday. The short story taken from The Best American Short Story of the Century by John Updike, Katrina Kenison in a form of portable document format. The data of this study are words, phrases, sentences, paragraph which contains kinds of formal links.

Figure 1

3.3 Instrument

The instrument of this study was the writer himself. The researcher was the primary instrument in data collection rather than some inanimate mechanism (Eisner, 1991; Frankel & Wallen, 1990; Lincoln & Gobi,

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1985; Merriam, 1988). However, the writer also needed some supporting tools such as, notebook laptop, internet, camera hand phone and hard copy of Double Birthday’s short story to collect the data. All the activities were done by operating personal computer or notebook laptop and some office software.

3.4 Data Collection

The data were collected from any paragraphs that consist of sentences, phrases, and words in Double Birthday short story that contain kinds of formal links. The writer did several steps to obtain the data.

1. First, the writer read the short story “Double Birthday” from his notebook laptop.

2. Next, the writer printed out the short story.

3. Then, the writer read once again and underlined any sentences, phrases and words that contain kinds of formal links.

4. Last, the writer sort out the data of formal links that appears in the short story.

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3.5 Data Analysis

After doing a data collection, the writer did several procedures in analyzing the data. Data analysis was inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher made interpretations of the meaning of the data (Creswell, 2014).

3.5.1 Identifying the Formal Links of the “Double Birthday” short story

The writer identified the data of the “Double Birthday” that contain kinds of formal links. The writer gave codes to the data in order to make the writer easy to classify and to make the reader easy to read the data. The writer gave codes the underlying data based on this rules:

Codes for kinds of formal links: a. Verb Form codes VF

b. Kinds of Parallelism; Grammatical Parallelism codes GP, Sound Parallelism codes SoP, and Semantic Parallelism codes SeP

c. Kinds of Referring Expressions; Anaphoric ref. e codes REA, Cataphoric ref. codes REC, and Exophoric ref. codes REE d. Repetition and Lexical Chains codes R

e. Substitution codes S f. Ellipsis codes E g. Conjunction codes C

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The following of data coding wrote as follow:

For example: {1/1/2/E} = the datum number 1 found in page 1 in line 2. The kind of formal links is Ellipsis.

Figure 1.2 The Example of Identifying Data

3.5.2 Classifying Kind of Formal Links

The writer classified kind of formal links and the researcher also applies it in the percentage by using this formula:

Percentage of each kind: x 100 %

x: the frequency of kind of formal links y: the total number of frequency

The writer classified kinds of formal links based on Guy Cook theory. It represents to answer research question number 1

[1/1/2/E] [2/1/3/R] [3/1/5/GP]

[5/1/12/REA] [4/1/9/C]

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3.5.3 Identifying the Functions of Formal Links

The writer identified the functions of formal links in the “Double Birthday”. The writer gave codes to the functions of formal links in order to make the writer easy to classify and to make the reader easy to read it. The writer gave codes the underlying data based on this rules:

Codes for functions of formal links:

a. Verb Form = Influencing and limiting verbs codes I & L b. Parallelism = Connecting clause codes Co

c. Referring Expression = Indicating reference pronoun codes IRP

NO. Code Data Frequency Percentage

1. VF

2. GP

3. SoP

4. SeP

5. REA

6. REC

7. REE

8. R

9. S

10. E

11. C

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d. Repetition = Stressing codes St

e. Substitution and Ellipsis = being efficient codes Eff

f. Conjunction = Adding more information codes AMI, giving cause and effect codes C & E, Contrasting information will be codes Con, illustrating terms of time codes ToT

The following of data coding wrote as follow:

For example: {1/1/2/E/Eff} = the datum number 1 found in page 1 in line 2. The kind of formal links is Ellipsis, and the Function is Efficient.

3.5.4 Classifying Function of Formal Links

The writer classified kinds of formal links based on Guy Cook theory. It represents to answer research question number 2

Formal Links Functions Data Frequency Percentage

Verb Form I & L

Parallelism Co

Referring

Expression IRP

Repetition St

Substitution and

Ellipsis Eff

Conjunction

AMI C & E

Con ToT TOTAL

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3.5.5 Interpret the data

After classifying and determining the kinds of formal links, the writer made interpretation of the data of words, phrases, sentences, paragraph which contain kinds of formal links. Then, the writer described the function of formal links used in the short story “Double Birthday”, to find out the function of each kind of formal links.

3.5.6 Drawing Conclusion

After analyzing the data based on the theory on Guy Cook, the writer drew the conclusion from the result of analysis in kinds of formal links.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter deals with the research findings and discussion about the statement of problems formulated in chapter one. This chapter consists of two sections; findings and discussions.

4.1 Findings

Based on the research problems, two topics are presented in this part simultaneously. The first part is kinds of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story and the second part is the functions of formal links in the short story.

4.1.1 Kinds of Formal Links

Based on the data analysis, the writer found 67 data containing kinds of formal links. The chart below shows the data of kinds of formal links. It presents the total number and frequency of each kind.

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The chart above shows that anaphoric referring expression is the most dominant among kinds of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. It reaches the highest number with 24 data out of 67 data or 36% of all the kinds.

It shows that “Double Birthday” short story mostly uses anaphoric referring

expression to give pronouns that refers to identity of someone or something that is already given once at the beginning, in this case is the character of the short story.

The second highest number amount of formal links is conjunction with the total data of 20 out of 67 data or 30% of the total kinds of formal links. Substitution is the third highest number with 7 data out of 67 data or 10% of

the total. Repetition in “Double Birthday” short story only has 6 data out of 67

data or 9% of the total. Verb Form is 4 data out of 67 data or 6% of the total. Cataphoric referring expression and ellipsis has the same amount of data with 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total. The rest kind of formal links is grammatical parallelism and semantic parallelism that come as the lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. Each of those kinds occurs once out of 67 data, with 1.5% each kind of the total. The kinds of formal links are explained in a detailed way as follows.

4.1.1.1 Anaphoric Referring Expression

Anaphoric referring expression is pronouns that express someone or something is given once at the beginning. “The passengers presented

themselves for checking before boarding the plane.” is one of the

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formal links used in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 24 data out of 67 data or 36% of the total. They are data (5/1/23), (6/2/4), (7/2/8), (10/2/26), (11/2/28), (12/2/31), (13/2/40), (17/3/11), (18/3/25), (19/3/31), (23/5/6), (29/7/4), (30/8/6), (31/8/14), (35/9/16), (39/10/16), (45/11/36), (46/11/38), (52/15/3), (54/15/23), (57/17/5), (58/17/14), (60/18/22), and (64/19/26). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.

Excerpt 1 (18/3/25)

Judge Hammersley's house out on Squirrel Hill sat under a grove of very old oak trees. He lived alone, with his daughter, Margaret Parmenter, who was a widow. She had a great many engagements, but she usually managed to dine at home with her father, and that was about as much society as he cared for. His house was comfortable in an old-fashioned way, well appointed — especially the library, the room in which he lived when he was not in bed or at the Court House. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)

The narrator tells about Judge Hammersley’s house that used many pronouns. The meanings of he and his are referred to Judge Hammersley as the identity of someone is given at the beginning. Meanwhile, the meanings of she and her are referred to Margaret Parmenter as the identity of someone is given after her father. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another. Another example of anaphoric referring expression can be found in excerpt 2.

Excerpt 2 (23/5/6)

After dinner the Judge retired to his library, where the gas fire was lit, and his book at hand, with a paper-knife inserted to mark the place where he had left off reading last night at exactly ten-thirty. On his way he went to the front door, opened it, turned on the porch light, and looked at the thermometer, making an entry in a little notebook. In a few moments

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his daughter, in an evening cloak, stopped at the library door to wish him good night and went down the hall. He listened for the closing of the front door; it was a reassuring sound to him. He liked the feeling of an orderly house, empty for himself and his books all evening. He was deeply read in divinity, philosophy, and in the early history of North America. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 5)

The words of he, his, him, and himself are referred to Judge as the identity of someone given at the beginning. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse in which each expression is linked to another. Another example of anaphoric referring expression can be found in the next excerpt.

Excerpt 3 (12/2/31)

He was the last of the Engelhardt boys, and they had none of them had anything to show. They all died much worse off in the world than they began. They began with a flourishing glass factory up the river, a comfortable fortune, a fine old house on the park in Allegheny, a good standing in the community; and it was all gone, melted away. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)

The meanings of they, and them are referred to Engelhardt boys as the identity of someone is given at the beginning. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another.

4.1.1.2 Conjunction

Conjunctions are the words to join sentence elements such as words, phrases, or clauses, or even sentences. This is the second highest

kind of formal links used in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 20

data out of 67 data or 30% of the total kinds of formal links. They are data (4/1/9), (20/3/38), (24/5/30), (28/6/37), (32/8/27), (33/8/37), (34/9/2),

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(36/9/27), (37/9/34), (40/10/19), (42/11/9), (43/11/12), (48/13/14), (51/14/35), (53/15/15), (59/17/22), (61/18/29), (63/19/24), (66/21/15), and (67/23/19). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.

Excerpt 4 (32/8/27)

Conductors of orchestras and singing societies recommended Doctor Engelhardt because he was very lax about collecting fees from professionals, especially if they sent him a photograph floridly inscribed. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 8)

The sentence above shows that because here gives new information to what has already been given in terms of causes. The new information is Doctor Engelhardt was very lax about collection fees from professionals; this is why conductors of orchestras and singing societies recommended him. Another example of conjunction can be found in excerpt 5.

Excerpt 5 (40/10/19)

She thought it was lovely of him, but she was very fond of her classmates, and she wanted to graduate with her class next year. Moreover, she had just been given a choir position in one of the biggest churches in Pittsburgh, though she was still a schoolgirl; she was going to have money and pretty clothes for the first time in her life and wouldn't miss it all for anything. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 10)

The paragraph above shows that moreover here adds more information to what has already been said. It tells about a person who fond of her classmates in the first sentences. Then, more information is given in the next sentence with a conjunction, that is, “moreover”. Another example of conjunction can be found in the next excerpt.

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Excerpt 6 (20/3/38)

As a young girl his daughter had used to take up the challenge and hotly defend the person who had displeased or disappointed her father. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)

The sentence above shows that or here indicates new contrasting information with old information.

4.1.1.3 Substitution

Substitution is kind of formal link that the word like do or so substitutes for a word or group of words which have appeared in an earlier sentence. This is the third highest kind of formal links used in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 7 data out of 67 data or 10% of the total. They are data (21/4/8), (22/4/20), (47/13/4), (50/14/19), (55/16/20), (62/19/17), and (65/20/38). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.

Excerpt 7 (21/4/8)

"Oh, did you really? I haven't seen him for years, not since the war. How was he looking? Shabby?"

"Not so shabby as he ought to. That fellow's likely to be in want one of these days."

"I'm afraid so," Mrs. Parmenter sighed. "But I believe he would be rather plucky about it." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 4)

Here “so” substitutes the underlined sentence that has appeared

earlier. It substitutes the arguments about someone who hasn’t seen for years and guess it what he looks like. In this case, word “so” substitutes a group of words or sentences. Another example of substitution can be found in excerpt 8.

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Excerpt 8 (22/4/20)

"Can he be as old as that? Yes, I suppose so. When we were both at Mrs. Sterrett's, in Rome, I was fifteen, and he must have been about thirty." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 4)

Here “so” substitutes the word that has appeared earlier. It

substitutes the questions “Can he be as old as that?”. Another example of substitution can be found in next excerpt.

Excerpt 9 (55/16/20)

"And we were always going to run away to Russia together, and now there is no Russia. Everything has changed but you, Mrs. Parmenter." "Wish I could think so. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 16)

Here “so” substitutes the sentences that appeared earlier. It

substitutes the declaration about everything that has changed but not Mrs.

Parmenter. In this case, word “so” substitutes a statement, “And we were

always going to run away to Russia together, and now there is no Russia. Everything has changed but you, Mrs. Parmenter”.

4.1.1.4 Repetition

Repetition is kind of formal link that repeating words in order to give stressing. Repetition of words can create the same sort of chain as pronouns, and there are sometimes good reasons for preferring it. Repetition of a key term or phrase in the text helps to focus your ideas and to keep your reader/listener on track. Repetition in “Double Birthday” short story only has 6 data out of 67 data or 9% of the total. They are data (2/1/3), (9/2/24), (14/3/3), (25/5/31), (44/11/23), and (56/17/2). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.

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Excerpt 10 (56/17/2)

The library opened directly into the hall; he couldn't help overhearing his daughter, and he disliked her free and unreproachful tone with this man who was young when he should be old, single when he should be married and penniless when he should be well fixed. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 17)

Here the clauses are linked through the repetition of “when he

should be” and their meanings are synonymous that he thinks still young rather than being old. The first clause is about young that should be old, second is about single that should be married, and third is about penniless that should be well fixed. Another example of repetition can be found in excerpt 11.

Excerpt 11 (9/2/24)

He was really a sympathetic man, and though so stern of manner, he had deep affections; was fiercely loyal to old friends, old families, and old ideals. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)

Here the word “old” is repeated and their meanings are

synonymous that someone was fiercely loyal to old friends, old families, and old ideals. Another example of repetition can be found in excerpt 12. Excerpt 12 (14/3/3)

Their bringing-up was wrong; August had too free a hand, he was too proud of his five handsome boys, and too conceited. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)

The word “too” in the sentence above is repeating because of

August’s bringing-up was wrong. He had too free a hand means let the

boys and ignore them, he was too proud means because the boys handsome, and he was too conceited means with a highly arrogance.

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4.1.1.5 Verb Form

Verb form is kind of formal link that deals with verb in one paragraph; the form of the verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the verb form in the next. Verb Form in “Double Birthday” short story only has 4 data out of 67 data or 6% of the total. They are data (8/2/20), (38/10/4), (41/10/25), and (49/13/25). Here the writer takes three data to be discussed.

Excerpt 13 (8/2/20)

"Certainly, certainly." The Judge spoke up quickly and for the first time looked Albert squarely in the eye. "Don't give him any of that bootleg stuff. I can find something in my cellar. Come out to-morrow night after eight, with a gripsack of some sort. Very glad to help you out, Albert. Glad the old fellow holds up so well. Thank'ee, Albert," as Engelhardt swung the heavy door open and held it for him to pass. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)

From the paragraph above, there are two different verb forms because there are monologue and dialogue in this paragraph. First is monologue, we can see that the verbs (spoke, looked, and swung) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to what activity that already done in the past.

Second is dialogue, we can see that the verbs (give, find, come, help, and holds) are all in simple present since the verbs refers to a conversation between Albert and Judge Hammersley in “Double Birthday” short story. The Judge command and invite Albert and also feels glad to help Albert out. Another example of verb form can be found in excerpt 14.

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Excerpt 14 (38/10/4)

She came to lunch with them again and again, because she liked the boys, and she thought the house magnificent. The Doctor observed her narrowly all the while. Clearly she had no ambition, no purpose; she sang to be agreeable. She was not very intelligent, but she had a kind of personal warmth that, to his way of thinking, was much better than brains. He took her over to his office and poked and pounded her. When he had finished his examination, he stood before the foolish, happy young thing and inclined his head in his peculiar fashion. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 10)

From the previous discourse, we can see that the verbs (came, liked, and thought,) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to the woman who as usual come to lunch with them again and again in the past and verbs (observed, sang, took, poked, pounded, stood, and inclined) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to the Doctor that excited and observed the woman. Another example of verb form can be found in the next excerpt.

Excerpt 15 (49/13/25)

The tortured man looked up through the linden branches at the blue arch that never answers. As he looked, his face relaxed, his breathing grew regular. His eyes were caught by puffy white clouds like the cherub-heads in Raphael's pictures, and something within him seemed to rise and travel with those clouds. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 13)

The paragraph above, we can see that the verbs (tortured, looked, relaxed, grew, caught, and seemed) are all in the simple past since the verbs describing the man who extremely stressed. There seems to be a formal connection between them, a way in the first tense conditions all the others.

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4.1.1.6 Cataphoric Referring Expression

Cataphoric referring expression is kind of formal link that the pronouns are given first and then the identity is revealed. “This is what she said –our teacher is a raving lunatic!” is one of the examples of cataphoric referring expression. This kind of formal link appears in “Double Birthday” short story only with 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total. Excerpt 16 (26/6/28)

"The daughter, she still lives with him? A damned fine-looking woman!" he muttered between his teeth. Uncle Albert, a bachelor, had been a professed connoisseur of ladies in his day. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 6)

The meanings of he and his are referred to Uncle Albert as the identity of someone is given after the pronouns. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another. Another example of cataphoric referring expression can be found in excerpt 17.

Excerpt 17 (27/6/30)

Immediately after dinner, unless he were going somewhere, Albert always played for his uncle for an hour. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 6)

The meaning of he is referred to Albert as the identity of someone is given after the pronouns. This makes a kind of chain running through the discourse, in which each expression is linked to another.

4.1.1.7 Ellipsis

Ellipsis is omitting part of sentences on the assumption that an earlier sentence or the context will make the meaning clear. We can simply

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omit it, and know that the missing part can be reconstructed quite successfully. This kind of formal link appears in “Double Birthday” short story only with 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total.

Excerpt 18 (1/1/2)

EVEN IN American cities, which seem so much alike, where people seem all to be living the same lives, striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts, there are still individuals a little out of tune with the times — there are still survivals of a past more loosely woven, there are disconcerting beginnings of a future yet unforeseen. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 1)

In the paragraph above, there are some words that are omitted because it is clear what the context is, for instance where people seem all to be in the paragraph in the next is omitted in “striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts”.

We can put where people seem all to be in each actually, and

become “where people seem all to be living the same lives, where people

seem all to be striving for the same things, where people seem all to be thinking the same thoughts” but it is omitted since the context is clear. Another example of ellipsis can be found in excerpt 19.

Excerpt 19 (15/3/3)

Their bringing-up was wrong; August had too free a hand, he was too proud of his five handsome boys, and too conceited. Too much tennis, Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness. They were always running over to New York, like this Albert. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)

From the paragraph above, we can see the word too much is omitted in “Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness” because the context is

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Rhine wine punch, too much music, and too much silliness” but since the context is clear, the word too much is omitted.

4.1.1.8 Grammatical Parallelism

Grammatical parallelism is a device which suggests a connection, proceeds through a repeated grammatical structure into which different words are slotted. This kind of formal link is the lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. It occurs once out of 67 data, with 1.5% of the total.

Excerpt 20 (3/1/5)

EVEN IN American cities, which seem so much alike, where people seem all to be living the same lives, striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts, there are still individuals a little out of tune with the times — there are still survivals of a past more loosely woven, there are disconcerting beginnings of a future yet unforeseen. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 1)

The paragraph above employs parallelism to link clauses as there is a repeated grammatical structure (there are … of …).

4.1.1.9 Semantic Parallelism

Semantic Parallelism is a device suggests a connection; the sentences are linked because they mean the same thing. This kind of formal link is the lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. It occurs once out of 67 data, with 1.5% of the total.

Excerpt 21 (16/3/13)

Judge Hammersley didn't see how Albert could hold his head up. He had some small job in the County Clerk's office, was dependent upon it, had nothing else but the poor little house on the South Side where he

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lived with his old uncle. The county took care of him for the sake of his father, who had been a gallant officer in the Civil War, and afterward a public-spirited citizen and a generous employer of labor. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)

The above sentences are connected as they reveal the same meaning that Albert could hold his head up.

4.1.2 Functions of Formal Links

Based on the data analysis, the writer found 67 data containing functions of formal links. The chart below shows the data of functions of formal links. It presents the total number and frequency of each function.

The chart above shows that indicating reference pronoun is the most dominant function among other functions of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. It reaches the highest number with 26 data out of 67 data or 39% of all the functions. We have the second highest, they are being efficient and giving cause & effect has the same amount of data with 9 data out of 67 data or 13% of the total. There is also a lot of Stressing that used in “Double Birthday” short story. It is the third highest number with 6 data out of

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67 data or 9% of the total functions of formal links. Contrasting information and illustrating terms of time has the same amount of data with 5 data out of 67 data or 7.5% of the total. Influencing & limiting verbs is 4 data out of 67 data or 6% of the total. Connecting clause is 2 data out of 67 data or 3% of the total. The rest function of formal links is adding more information come as the

lowest number in “Double Birthday” short story. This function occurs once

out of 67 data or 2% of the total. The functions of formal links are explained in a detailed way as follows.

4.1.2.1 Indicating Reference Pronoun

This function comes as the highest functions of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. Reference is the link between an element and others in a text in which it is interpreted. It is reach the highest number with 26 data out of 67 data or 39% of the total. They are data (5/1/23), (6/2/4), (7/2/8), (10/2/26), (11/2/28), (12/2/31), (13/2/40), (17/3/11), (18/3/25), (19/3/31), (23/5/6), (26/6/28), (27/6/30), (29/7/4), (30/8/6), (31/8/14), (35/9/16), (39/10/16), (45/11/36), (46/11/38), (52/15/3), (54/15/23), (57/17/5), (58/17/14), (60/18/22), and (64/19/26).

Excerpt 22 (23/5/6)

After dinner the Judge retired to his library, where the gas fire was lit, and his book at hand, with a paper-knife inserted to mark the place where he had left off reading last night at exactly ten-thirty. On his way he went to the front door, opened it, turned on the porch light, and looked at the thermometer, making an entry in a little notebook. In a few moments his daughter, in an evening cloak, stopped at the library door to wish him good night and went down the hall. He listened for the closing of the front door; it was a reassuring sound to him. He liked the feeling of an orderly house, empty for himself and his books all evening. He was deeply read in

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divinity, philosophy, and in the early history of North America. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 5)

From the paragraph above, there is one reference. His here indicates reference pronoun as possessive, the Judge. He here indicates reference pronoun as subject, pointing upward to Judge. Him here indicates reference pronoun as object. Himself here indicates reference pronoun as possessive object.

4.1.2.2 Being Efficient

This function makes sentence more simpler and efficient. This function comes as the second highest functions of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. It occurs 9 data out of 67 data or 13% of the total. They are data (1/1/2), (15/3/3), (21/4/8), (22/4/20), (47/13/4), (50/14/19), (55/16/20), (62/19/17), and (65/20/38).

Excerpt 23 (15/3/3)

Their bringing-up was wrong; August had too free a hand, he was too proud of his five handsome boys, and too conceited. Too much tennis, Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness. They were always running over to New York, like this Albert. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 3)

From the paragraph above, we can see the word too much is omitted in “Rhine wine punch, music, and silliness” because the context is clear. The ellipsis here, make the sentence simpler and effecient. The word too much only appears once. If the sentence not effecient, it wiil be “Too much tennis, too much Rhine wine punch, too much music, and too much

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Excerpt 24 (21/4/8)

"Oh, did you really? I haven't seen him for years, not since the war. How was he looking? Shabby?"

"Not so shabby as he ought to. That fellow's likely to be in want one of these days."

"I'm afraid so," Mrs. Parmenter sighed. "But I believe he would be rather plucky about it." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 4)

From the conversation above, it can be simplified that so is substitution of That fellow's likely to be in want one of these days. The substitution here makes the sentence "I'm afraid so," more efficient. If the sentence not efficient, it will be “I'm afraid that fellow's likely to be in want one of these days.”

2.1.2.3 Giving Cause and Effect

This function occurs when conjunction like (so, because, consequently, for this reason, etc.) appeared. This function comes as the second highest functions of formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. There are 9 data out of 67 data or 13% of the total. They are data (4/1/9), (24/5/30), (28/6/37), (32/8/27), (33/8/37), (36/9/27), (37/9/34), (66/21/15), and (67/23/19).

Excerpt 25 (24/5/30)

He was delighted to have a home again, to unpack his own furniture and his books and pictures — the most valuable in the world to him, because they were full of his own history and that of his family, were like part of his own personality. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 5)

The word because in the paragraph above show cause & effect

function. The cause is “they were full of his own history and that of his

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delighted to have a home again, to unpack his own furniture and his books and pictures — the most valuable in the world to him”. We can see the keyword for cause is the word because itself, and the keyword for effect is “the most valuable”. This is about relating new information what has already been given in terms of causes. Another example of giving cause and effect function occurs in excerpt 26.

Excerpt 26 (33/8/37)

One morning when the Doctor was taking his customary walk about the Park before office hours, he stopped in front of the Allegheny High School building because he heard singing — a chorus of young voices. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 8)

From the sentence above, we can see that the word because gives cause and effect function. The cause is clear after the word because that “he heard singing — a chorus of young voices”. The effect is before the word because that “he stopped in front of the Allegheny High School building”. This is about relating new information what has already been given in terms of causes. Another example of giving cause and effect function occurs in the next excerpt.

Excerpt 27 (36/9/27)

The boys were delighted with her because she was jolly and interested in everything. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 9)

From the sentence above, we can see that the word because gives cause and effect function. The cause is clear after the word because that “she was jolly and interested in everything.” The effect is before the word

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because that “The boys were delighted with her”. This is about relating new information what has already been given in terms of causes.

4.1.2.4 Stressing Points

This function is unique; it shows when there are repetition words. Stressing sometimes is often used rather than refer to pronoun and it helps to focus the ideas and to keep your reader/listener on track. This function is the third highest number in “Double Birthday” short story with 6 data out of 67 data or 9% of the total functions of formal links. They are data (2/1/3), (9/2/24), (14/3/3), (25/5/31), (44/11/23), and (56/17/2).

Excerpt 28 (2/1/3)

EVEN IN American cities, which seem so much alike, where people seem all to be living the same lives, striving for the same things, thinking the same thoughts, there are still individuals a little out of tune with the times — there are still survivals of a past more loosely woven, there are disconcerting beginnings of a future yet unforeseen. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 1)

From the paragraph above, the word same is repeated in order to give stressing function that in American cities people seem all to be in the same lives, things, and thoughts. The repeated word same helps the reader/listener keep on track. Another example of stressing points function occurs in excerpt 29.

Excerpt 29 (25/5/31)

He was delighted to have a home again, to unpack his own furniture and his books and pictures — the most valuable in the world to him, because they were full of his own history and that of his family, were like part of his own personality. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 5)

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From the paragraph above, the word his own is repeated in order to give stressing function. We can see that the stressing is about belonging to

someone, that’s why the word his own is repeated. It helps the

reader/listener keep on track. Another example of stressing points function occurs in the next excerpt.

Excerpt 30 (44/11/23)

"Before my marriage, Doctor Engelhardt, you offered to take me to New York to a teacher, and lend me money to start on. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 11)

From the sentence above, the word to gives stressing function. The word to is repeated to gives stressing about what Doctor Engelhardt offer before marriage. It helps the reader/listener that Doctor Engelhardt’s offer is something important.

4.1.2.5 Contrasting Information

This function occurs when conjunction such as (or, on the other hand, etc.). This function is about contrasting new information with old information. This function appears in “Double Birthday” short story with 5 data out of 67 data or 7.5% of the total. They are data (20/3/38), (42/11/9), (43/11/12), (48/13/14), and (53/15/15).

Excerpt 31 (48/13/14)

He sat on that bench like a drunken man or like a dying man, muttering Heine's words, (Willa Cather, 1929, page 13)

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The word or in the sentence above is showing contrast function. The difference is between drunken man contrasting with dying man. Another example of contrasting information function occurs in excerpt 32. Excerpt 32 (53/15/15)

His old schoolfellows went to New York now as often as he had done in his youth; but they went to consult doctors, to put children in school, or to pay the bills of incorrigible sons. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 15)

The word or in the sentence above indicates contrast function, contrasting new information with old information. After consulting to doctor, differentiate about putting children in school or pay the bills of incorrigible sons.

4.1.2.6 Illustrating Terms of Time

This function occurs when conjunction like (formerly, then, in the end, etc.). This function appears in “Double Birthday” short story with 5 data out of 67 data or 7.5% of the total. They are data (34/9/2), (51/14/35), (59/17/22), (61/18/29), and (63/19/24).

Excerpt 33 (51/14/35)

The next evening after dinner Albert left the house with a suitcase, the bag that used to make so many trips to New York in the opera season. He stopped downstairs to ask Elsa to carry her sewing up and sit with his uncle for a while, then he took the street car across the Twenty-second Street Bridge by the blazing steel mills. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 14)

From the sentence above, the word then makes the sentence clear in terms of time. As the sentence describe Albert who busy doing his duty after dinner and left his house. The word then here is following next after

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in order of Albert’s position. Another example of illustrating terms of time function occurs in excerpt 34.

Excerpt 34 (59/17/22)

The Engelhardt boys were different, like people in a book or a play. All the young men in her set were scornful of girls until they wanted one; then they grabbed her rather brutally, and it was over. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 17)

From the paragraph above, the word then makes the sentence is clear in terms of time. It tells about Engelhardt boys have different treatment to a woman, and explained it in detail. The word then here is following next after in order of Engelhardt boys wanted one. Another example of illustrating terms of time function occurs in the next excerpt. Excerpt 35 (61/18/29)

"You'll have all you want for once. It's a great occasion. Did you shave carefully? I'll take my bath, and then you must be ready for me." (Willa Cather, 1929, page 18)

From the conversation above, the word then here means that someone must be ready when the other already takes bath. The word then here is following next after in order of command someone to ready.

4.1.2.7 Influencing and Limiting Verbs

The form of the verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the verb form in the next. This function occurs when the verb in one paragraph is connected in one tense. This function appears in “Double Birthday” short story with 4 data out of 67 data or 6% of the total. They are data (8/2/20), (38/10/4), (41/10/25), and (49/13/25).

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Excerpt 36 (8/2/20)

"Certainly, certainly." The Judge spoke up quickly and for the first time looked Albert squarely in the eye. "Don't give him any of that bootleg stuff. I can find something in my cellar. Come out to-morrow night after eight, with a gripsack of some sort. Very glad to help you out, Albert. Glad the old fellow holds up so well. Thank'ee, Albert," as Engelhardt swung the heavy door open and held it for him to pass. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 2)

From the paragraph above, there are two different verb forms because there are monologue and dialogue in this paragraph. First is monologue, we can see that the verbs (spoke, looked, and swung) are all in the simple past since the verbs refer to what activity that already done in the past. The first verb spoke influences and limits the next verb in past verb form.

Second is dialogue, we can see that the verbs (give, find, come, help, and holds) are all in simple present since the verbs refers to a conversation between Albert and Judge Hammersley in “Double Birthday” short story. The first verb give influences and limits the next verb in present verb form. Another example of influencing and limiting verbs function can be found in excerpt 37.

Excerpt 37 (38/10/4)

She came to lunch with them again and again, because she liked the boys, and she thought the house magnificent. The Doctor observed her narrowly all the while. Clearly she had no ambition, no purpose; she sang to be agreeable. She was not very intelligent, but she had a kind of personal warmth that, to his way of thinking, was much better than brains. He took her over to his office and poked and pounded her. When he had finished his examination, he stood before the foolish, happy young thing and inclined his head in his peculiar fashion. (Willa Cather, 1929, page 10)

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are repeated many times rather than refers to a pronoun. English reading texts of

national examination of senior high school need to be comprehended well, that is

why many repetitions are used in every passage.

Based on the findings of the second research problem about the functions

of formal links, the writer found and described 26 indicating reference pronouns,

9 giving cause and effect, 9 being efficient, 6 stressing points, 5 contrasting

information, 5 illustrating terms of time, 4 influencing and limiting verbs, 2

connecting clause, and 1 adding more information. The findings showed that

indicating reference pronoun is the dominant function among other functions of

formal links in “Double Birthday” short story. It reaches the highest number with

26 data out of 67 data or 39% of all the functions.

To sum up, indicating reference pronoun is mostly used in “Double

Birthday” short story. It is clear that pronouns save us from repeating the identity that already given again and again. In the short story, many characters explained

well using referring expression as well as pronoun. There are formal connections

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1. Conclusion

In the end of this study, the writer would like to conclude in order

to answer the two problems which are in his involved from the short story “Double Birthday” by Willa Cather. It is relating to formal links that occurred in the short story above. After getting the research findings in his study, the

writer makes the following conclusion.

The result of his research, the writer found formal links that are divided

into seven aspects. The kinds of formal links consist of verb form, parallelism,

referring expressions, repetition and lexical chains, substitution, ellipsis, and

conjunction.

Parallelism is a device which suggests a connection; it is used to provide a

powerful emotional effect. Parallelism is divided into three types namely,

grammatical parallelism, sound parallelism, and semantic parallelism.

Grammatical parallelism is proceeds through a repeated grammatical structure.

Semantic parallelism happens when the sentences are linked because they mean

the same thing. The writer did not find any sound parallelism in the short story

because mostly sound parallelism happens in poetry. Referring expressions mostly

used in the short story, it occurs in every paragraph. Referring expressions mean

words of the meaning can only be discovered by referring to other words or

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expressions indicate referring pronoun also save us from repeating the identity

that already given again and again. There are three types of referring expressions,

namely anaphoric referring expressions, cataphoric referring expression, and

exophoric referring expressions. Anaphoric found in all pages in the short story, it

indicates identity of someone or something that already given once at the

beginning, and thereafter referred with pronouns. Cataphoric found only two in a

specific paragraph. Exophoric was not found in the short story. Next, repetition is

found just for stressing some points and keeps the reader/listener on track.

Substitution and ellipsis found in the short story to makes the short story efficient

and simpler. Furthermore, a conjunction found quite much in the short story. A

conjunction like (so, because, consequently, for this reason, etc.) occurs in the

short story, it is giving cause and effect relating new information to what has

already been given. A conjunction such as (or, on the other hand, etc.) occurs in

the short story, it used for contrasting new information with old information. A

conjunction like (formerly, then, in the end, etc.) occurs in the short story, it used

for illustrating terms of time. A conjunction such as (furthermore, in addition,

moreover, etc.) occurs in the short story, it used for adding more information to

what already been said.

Overall, referring expressions are mostly used in “Double Birthday” short story by Willa Cather. One of the types of referring expression is anaphoric that

the most often in the short story above. Meanwhile, sound parallelism and

exophoric referring expressions is not occurred in the short story. Sound

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5.2. Suggestion

The findings of this study are expected can give contribution for the

development of the theory of the study about approaching language. The finding

that related to kinds of formal links, functions of formal links are expected to

enrich the study of approaching language. The writer hopes that, the future

researchers will continue this study, because the writer cannot make a much

deeper analyze in this study. The writer does not go any further to the question of

kinds of formal links, after answering the first question the writer still analyze

holistic about formal links. The researcher hopes the next research can improve

the validation, correct, and complete the results of this study and more focus about

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