Teaching Materials Vocabulary Teaching and Learning

2. WORKING AT THE STUDENT’S SEAT: Taking notes, completing worksheets on topics as the presentation proceeds filling in an outline of content, completing diagrams that accompany visual materials, writing replies to questions, solving problems, and making application of content, and completing self-check exercises or quizzes 3. OTHER MENTAL PARTICIPATION: Thinking along with the instructor, mentally verbalizing answers to rhetorical or direct questions and problems posed by the instructor and other students, and formulating questions to ask Kemp, 1977: 61 2 Individualized Learning The theory that “learning must be accomplished by individuals for themselves and that it takes place best when students work at their own rates, actively involved in performing specified tasks, and experience success” Kemp, 1977: 62 becomes the key of the emergence of individualized learning. Upon the individualized learning, it is recognized the significant characteristics of it. They are self-responsibility, self-pacing, and successful learning. These three characteristics have one main underlying variable that is time Kemp, 1977: 64. Self-responsibility, self-pacing, and successful learning are reachable if the students are given enough amount of time to perform individualized learning. Kemp 1977 suggests 11 methods and resources for individualized learning. Those are: a Student contracts The students commit to the teacher to achieve the objective in exchange for rewards e.g. points. b Textbookworksheets The objectives are built up from worksheets of textbook content directing the study of text chapters and providing review questions. c Audiotapeworkbook The audiotape available refers to the workbook including verbal, diagrammatic, and pictorial materials. d Visual materialsguide sheets Kemp 1977 defines that the combination of visual materials and guide sheets is “useful for learning operational procedures, manipulative skills, and other visually demonstrable sequential activities.” e Programmed instruction booklet Programmed instruction booklet refers to a book that presents the objectives and a set of subject contents. The students’ understanding of the content is tested by providing questions to be responded. f Commercial instructional packages It is a set of commercial learning sources that can be in the form of slide series or filmstrips, recording, or films. g Project PLAN Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs The project PLAN is a type of school program in various subject areas that is created for commercial purpose. h Individually Prescribed Instruction IPI IPI is also a commercial learning source that contains comprehensive elementary-grade program designed according to a detailed diagnosis to students’ skills and abilities. i Personalized System of Instruction PSI or Keller Plan PSI, which is developed by Fred Keller, is a learning source that each unit of it includes an introduction, objectives, reading assignments, study questions and readiness tests. Kemp 1977 describes that “after studying independently, a student takes a readiness test administered by a student proctor who immediately grades the test and discusses the result with the student”. j Audio-Tutorial System AT The program of Audio-Tutorial System, developed by S. N. Postlethwait, provides the students an audiotape of study guide containing objectives, activities, exercises, and self-check test. k Self-Learning Module SLM or Minicourse It refers to self-contained instructional packages that require time from hours, a week, or a semester. 3 Teacher-Student Interaction In this method of teaching and learning activities, the teacher and the students or the students themselves “work together in small groups to discuss, question, pursue problems cooperatively, and report” Kemp, 1977. The students, in performing this activity, could testify e.g. the result of their task accomplishment or other learning experiences so that they can learn from other students as well as from the teacher. Several advantages are noted from the application of this method. First, it can raise students’ attitude formation, development of appreciations, cooperation and interpersonal relations. Second, it can also train students’ problem-solving and decision-making ability. And third, it can aid students to practice their organization and presentation of ideas as well as to practice leadership.

2. Learning Autonomy

The discussion of learning autonomy covers two major parts, namely background of learning autonomy and the concept of learning autonomy, with which the basic principle of autonomy is “the active involvement of learners in learning” Niemi, 2002 cited in Ardi, 2007. Simply saying, learning autonomy is understood as learners’ ability to manage, monitor, and evaluate their learning although there is no control from other people, the teachers Ardi, 2007: 26.

a. Background of Learning Autonomy

The concept of autonomy has been influenced by various theories beyond the field of language learning. Benson 2001: 22 proposes several theories influence the theory of learning autonomy which includes educational reform, adult education, psychology of learning, and political philosophy. 1 Educational reform Theory of educational reform perceives that learners are responsible for their engagements and learn from their experiences, problem solvers, decisive, reflective, innately good, and self-actualizer Benson, 2001. Considering those