In his research report, Ardi 2007: 33 elaborates that the concept of autonomy was firstly developed in the western culture, thus the principle concept
of autonomy is different from that of in the eastern culture, including Asia. The concept of learning autonomy which develops in western culture gives emphasize
on individual independence Holec, 1979, while eastern culture is characterized by its collectivism and interdependence Ardi, 2007. Therefore, Holec’s concept
of autonomy is comprehendible but difficult to be achieved.
3. Classroom Action Research CAR
The discussion of classroom action research CAR is elaborated in three sub-parts. The first sub-part is history of classroom action research. The second
sub-part is definitions, characteristics, and functions of classroom action research. And the third sub-part is theory of classroom action research.
a. History of Classroom Action Research
As it is retold by McNiff Whitehead 2002: 40 that action research was firstly done by John Collier, a Commissioner of Indian Affairs from 1933-1945.
The work of Collier was to develop the community of Native Americans; it was in the field of education and social context.
Other person believed to be involved in the birth of classroom action research is Kurt Lewin McNiff Whitehead, 2002: 40; Reason Bradburry,
2001: 2. Lewin was a Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany. Lewin’s work was in the industrial contexts and it was about how participation in decision-making
could lead to enhanced productivity. Lewin’s theory of action research involved planning, fact-finding reconnaissance, and execution Lewin, 1946 cited in
McNiff Whitehead, 2002: 41.
b. Definitions, Characteristics, and Functions of Classroom Action Research
It is indisputable that there are several definitions which try to explain what a classroom action research is. A classroom action research is a form of reflective
research done to enhance the researcher’s own teaching, test the assumptions of educational theory in practice, implement and evaluate a particular teaching
strategy Hopkins, 1949; and Carr Kemmis, 1986 cited in Madya, 2006. A classroom action research is a sub-area of inquiry; it is the act or process of
seeking the answer to questions Cohen Manion, 1994 cited in Wallace, 1998: 10. Other proponent, Elliot 1991 cited in Hopkins, 1993: 45, defines a
classroom action research as “the study of social situation with a view to improving the quality of action within it”. Meanwhile, in defining what a
classroom action research is, Wallace 1998 emphasizes the value of experience, where based on the experience in teaching after a period of practice the
expectation of improvement to the teaching practice arises. Based on several definitions above, it can be drawn that classroom action research is a reflective
research which is conducted by implementing a new teaching strategy, collecting information on the teaching practice, and analyzing it to find out how to improve
the teaching in the future.
Cohen Manion 1980 cited in Madya, 2006: 11 elaborates some general characteristics of classroom action research. First, it is situational, contextual, in
small scale, practicable, and relevant to the real situation. It is related to the investigation of a problem in order to solve it, and the subjects can be varying.
Second, it gives clear and regular research framework. Third, it is flexible and adaptable. It enables the researcher makes some changes to improvement. Fourth,
it is a participatory research. The researcher can determine whether he will take part in the research or not. Fifth, it includes the researcher’s self-evaluation. And
sixth, the changes to improvement were based on the data gathered. Meanwhile, McNiff Whitehead 2003 cited in Madya, 2006: 12 also
identifies some specific characteristics of classroom action research. First, there is a commitment to improvement in education in a classroom action research.
Second, classroom action research includes clear purposes in evaluating and improving one’s understanding to his own teaching. Third, the subject and the
object of the research are the researchers. Fourth, it includes actions that are based on knowledge, commitment, and purposes. Fifth, it involves authentic
description of the actions. Sixth, classroom action research requires clear explanation to the actions done. Seventh, there is a new way in reporting the result
of the research i.e. written report of self-reflection, written conversation, narration, etc. And eight, it requires validity to the statements made.
Besides elaborating the general characteristics of classroom action research, Cohen Manion 1980 cited in Madya, 2006: 26 identifies five functions of
classroom action research in education. First, it functions as a means to problem-
solving or teaching practices improvement. Second, it functions as a practical means leads to professional development Wallace, 1998: 4. Third, it functions as
a means to include new strategy or technique of teaching. Fourth, it functions as a means to improve communication between the researcher and the teacher, as well
as the researcher and the students and the teacher and the students. And fifth, it functions as a means which provides alternative approach in classroom problem-
solving.
c. Theory of Classroom Action Research
The theory of classroom action research was developed firstly by Lewin 1946 cited in McNiff Whitehead, 2002: 41 as a spiral which involved
planning, fact-finding reconnaissance, and execution. Later, it was refined, formalized, and applied in education by Stephen Kemmis Kemmis Mc
Taggart, 1988 cited in Hopkins, 1993: 48. Kemmis’ classroom action research theory is also known as an action-reflection cycle, which consists of planning,
acting, observing, and reflecting. Citing in Hopkins 1993: 48, Kemmis has summarized his approach to classroom action research in education as presented
in figure 2.3 Classroom Action Research Cycle.
Figure 2.3 Classroom Action Research Cycle From Kemmis Mc Taggart 1988 cited in Hopkins 1993:48
Further description to the phases in a classroom action research cycle is elaborated by Madya 2006 and is presented in the following:
1 Planning
Planning in classroom action research is structured actions which lead to real actions. It realizes that social actions are unpredictable and risky so it must be
flexible enough. Therefore, planning in action research should, first, be able to help the researchers solve problems and act properly, and second, be able to help
the researchers be aware of their potential to gain their professional development.
