15 courses. Functional literacy was either embedded in the content of general literacy
materials or taught separately in the three month-long vocational courses. It is known that the majority of the participants in the national seminar
11
were in favor of the fourth model. They pointed out two major issues: 1 a six month-long literacy course is not
enough for the illiterate to become literate and 2 the literacy program needs to be linked with the functional literacy activities such as income generating, farming, family
planning, and healthcare Medel-Anonuevo, 1996:52.
1.3.2 Adult Literacy in the Vernacular Languages of Nepal
Due to its ethnic diversity, complexity, and educational traditions, Nepal is confronting various challenges in implementing high quality education for all. There have
been a number of studies on the current situation of multilingual education in Nepal. Among them,
―Exploring Monolingual School Practices in Multilingual Nepal‖ Awasthi, 2004 investigated the current instructional practices in Nepal. Awasthi
concluded that existing instructional practices did not allow non-Nepali speaking children to receive education through their mother tongue thus contributing to higher dropout,
repetition, and failure rates through the early grades. Awasthi ‘s research also found that
current policy and practice on medium of instruction was contributing to linguistic hierarchies and social divisions in society. Non-Nepali speaking students and parents
have tended to change their linguistic identity because their mother tongues have been
11
It was one of the five national seminars organized by the UNESCO Institute for Education in 1996. During the discussion of the seminar, the data of four models were collected and the strategic needs were
reviewed. According to my observation, these four models are still found in Nepal.
16 ignored, undervalued, or construed as a disadvantage.
In 1990, the indigenous peoples in Nepal began to organize a mass movement for the creation of a democracy in order to establish and protect their linguistic, cultural, and
human rights. In response, Article 18 of the Constitution of 1990 guaranteed the fundamental right of individuals to receive primary education in their first language.
Article 18 states: ―Each community residing within the Kingdom of Nepal shall have the right to
preserve and promote its language, script and culture; and each community shall have the right to operate schools up to the primary level in its own mother tongue
for imparting educati
on to its children.‖ Since then, mother tongue literacy programs in Nepal have gradually begun to
receive increasing support from the government with respect to the cultural and educational rights of the minority languages in Nepal. The subsequent education plans
adopted by the National Education Commission in 1992 and the Higher Education Commission in 2000 also advocated mother tongue education Khadka et al., 2006.
Another significant recent impetus for mother tongue literacy has been the ongoing demand of the Communist Party of Nepal Maoists for the right to mother
tongue education. Although they have been one of the main sources of ―violent conflict
and political upheaval ‖ in Nepal, they have also contributed to ―growing attention to the
marginalization of certain ethnic minority groups, signaling the importance of recognizing their languages
…as their mother tongue‖ Robinson-Pant, 2010:137. All current political parties in Nepal generally support the demand of the Maoists who have
been leading the government of Nepal since 2008 when the 240 year old monarchy was dramatically abolished.
17 The Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007 also recognizes the fundamental right of
each language community to gain basic education in their mother tongue and to conserve and promote language, script, culture, cultural tradition and heritage. Article 17 of
Chapter 3 states: ―Education and Cultural Rights:
1 Each community shall have the right to get basic education in their mother tongue as provided for in the law.
2 Every citizen shall have the right to free education from the State up to secondary level as provided for in the law.
3 Each community residing in Nepal shall have the right to preserve and promote its language, script, culture, cultural civility, and heritage.
‖ The SSRP 2009-2015 mentioned above is the latest impetus for quality education
especially for indigenous peoples in Nepal by promoting the use of vernacular languages as media of instruction andor subjects at the level of primary education. The SSRP notes
the importance of neo-literacy and lifelong learning as the basis for continuing education for all adults and youths between 15 and 45 years of age. The Ministry of Education
expects key results of neo-literacy programs as follows MoE, Government of Nepal, 2009:44:
• neo-literates empowered and have access to information and skills with ability to make rational choices contributing to improved livelihoods;
• enhanced system capacity and institutional learning; • 1,050 Community Learning Centers established and operational;
• 686,665 neo-literates engaged in continuing education; and • mother tongue literacy courses in local languages through Curriculum
Development Center experience and resourcing introduced. A number of efforts have been undertaken by the GoN and INGOsNGOs in
support of this literacy policy: • During BPEP I and II 1991-2001 and following years, primary education
materials developed by the Curriculum Development Center CDC in
18 twelve vernacular languages: Newari, Maithili, Tharu, Abadhi, Limbu,
Tamang, Bhojpuri, Magar, Rai Bantawa, Gurung, Sherpa, and Chamling Khadka et al., 2006:1
• “Three language – MT, Nepali, and English – policy” recommended by the National Commission Language Policy Report Khadka et al., 2006:2
• NFEliteracy programs conducted in seven vernacular languages – Tamang, Gurung, Magar, Tharu, Abadhi, Maithili, and Limbu ibid.
• MT literacy materials developed by various INGOs: Table 4: MT literacy materials developed by INGOs
INGO Language
Literacy material World
Education Tharu
Muthlihi: Basic literacy textbook part I II 10 booklet series: Supplementary materials on anti-
trafficking for neo-literates Limbu
Chotlung: Basic literacy textbook part I II SC-US
Maithili Learner generated materials
SC-Norway Magar
Children ‘s reading book
Plan Nepal Bhojpuri
Supplementary reading materials Abadhi
A dictionary Source: Shrestha, 2004
According to Khadka et al. 2006, a number of ethnic organizations have also organized MT-based NFEliteracy programs. Tamsipakha CLC, with assistance from
UNESCO, conducted literacy classes for the Newari people in Kathmandu. Supported by CIDA and WE, Kirat Yakthung Chumlung developed a program for Limbus in the
Morang district. Tamang Ghedung Sangh organized literacy classes for Tamangs in the Makwanpur district with support from Plan International, and Backward Society
Education developed a program for the Tharu people in Dang district with assistance from UNESCO and WE see Appendix B.
19 According to my own initial research
12
on MT-based adult literacy initiatives in Nepal, programs have been conducted by individual national andor expatriate literacy
practitioners, in cooperation with INGOsNGOs, in eleven different ethnic languages: Eastern Gurung, Khaling, Limbu, Lowa, Magar, Rajbanshi, Sampang, Tamang Eastern
and Western, Tharu, and Thulung see Appendix C. In terms of material production in ethnic mother tongues other than Nepali, many
MT
Pipal Pustak
MTPP series
13
have been produced since 2005, through the yearly MT Story Writing Workshop, in 20 different languages: Awadi, Bahing, Bantawa, Darai,
Dhimal, Dumi, Gurung, Jirel, Khaling, Kham Magar, Limbu, Magar, Maithili, Newari, Sherpa, Tamang Eastern and Western, Tharu, Thami, and Thulung. The MT Story
Writing workshop is held every January by Noriko Matsuura, a Japanese literacy practitioner with the MT Center Nepal. The workshop provides a structured framework
for people in Nepal to write narratives in their own mother tongues rather than merely translating stories from Nepali Digital Himalaya
14
, January, 2011.
1.3.3 The MT-based adult literacy project of the Eastern Tamang Language Team
