Tamang e Book 48 Kim Thesis FINAL

5 and 46.9 for females UNESCO-UIS, 2010.

1.2 Tamang

Tamang is the fourth largest minority language group of Nepal with a population of over one million. The word ―Tamang‖ is used to identify the ethnic group as well as the language which is a member of the Tibeto-Burman family. The history of the Tamang people can be traced mostly on the basis of their oral traditions and some Nepalese history, but very little has been recorded and known definitely. Generally speaking, there are two different theories of Tamang origin. One is that the Tamang may have been the first inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley but were dislodged by various invaders. The other one is that the Tibetan king, Songtsen Gampo, came down with an army from Kyirong in Tibet via the Bhote Kosi valley to the Kathmandu Valley in the mid-seventh century and became the ancestors of the Tamang. Traditionally, the Tamang were traders of salt coming from Kyirong. Tamang living in the Langtang region travel freely over the border and trade regularly Fricke, 1994:29; Varenkamp, 1996:10. Heavily influenced by Tibetan culture, most Tamang identify themselves as Buddhists Lama Tibetan Buddhists although their religion is a complex mixture of Tibetan Buddhism, Hinduism, and Animism. While Tamang people can be found in all 75 districts of Nepal from the highlands all the way down to the subtropical Terai, the greatest number are found in the three districts surrounding Kathmandu Valley: Makawanpur 185,874, Kavre-palanchok 130,261, and Nuwakot 111,112. A small number of Tamang are found in the three districts which make up the Western Regions of Nepal: Jajarkot 15, Argha-khachi 15, 6 and Rukum 18 Thokar, 2008:393. Glover 1974:12-13 classified the Tamang language into the Gurung group on the basis of Shafer ‘s classification and noted that Tamang is closely related to Gurung, Thakali, Manangi, and Tibetan. Mazaudon 2003:291 and Thokar 2008:401-402 identified this group as the Tamang-Gurung-Thakali-Manang TGTM cluster which includes Tamang, Gurung, Thakali, Manangpa, and the Nar-phu dialects, Chantyal, and Tangbe in the Mustang zone. Broadly speaking, the Tamang language has two distinct dialects: Eastern Tamang with 759,000 speakers and Western Tamang with 323,000 speakers Lewis, 2009:495-496. The two dialects are mutually unintelligible and may legitimately be referred to as separate languages. According to the sociolinguistic survey of Varenkamp 1996:45 and 81, the Tamang language can also be divided into three different linguistic groups: Central-Eastern Tamang, Outer-Eastern Tamang, and Western Tamang. The Central-Eastern Tamang language is the most widely understood dialect among all tested to date ibid.:495. There has been recognition of the need for standardization of the Tamang language among Tamangs, but at the same time, they want to respect all the varieties and do not want to exclude or diminish the importance of any. Amrit Yhonjan-Tamang and Parshuram Tamang expressed their concerns about standardization as follows: ―Every dialect will have its own importance and speakers, and every speaker should continue the written tradition in their respective area. If we can do this, the pure appearance of the Tamang language will appear, and there will be gradual development toward a standard form. If the language does not develop toward a standard form, the development of the language cannot attain great heights. To be able to be used in all domains of scientific knowledge, its development is of great 7 importance. My wish and desire is that a standard form of the language should be developed…‖ Yhonjan, quoted in Varenkamp, 1996:31. ―In [the Tamang] case…, there is only one language, even though there might be a number of different dialects. This common language we have to develop and cultivate. But in doing so, we are trying not to favour a certain dialect above the others. All members of the Tamang people should be able to call this language their own. Therefore, we are eager to let the dialects of all social groups merge into that one language‖ Tamang, Nepal Tamang Ghedung‘s Secretary General, in an interview given in 1995, quoted in Varenkamp, 1996:31. It is possible that de facto standardization will happen naturally without any specific plan as long as Tamang scholars and language planners keep producing materials in their dialects. By and large, Tamangs are engaged in agriculture and livestock farming. Historically, they were tenant-farmers, daily laborers, and carriers. It is said that Tamangs were the only ethnic group that had been required to stay in and around Kathmandu to be available for enlistment in the Nepali army. They could not join the Gurkha army to go abroad for economic gain, but could lend land for farming with the special exemption of taxes. That is partly how they became poorer and less educated compared to other Tibeto- Burman language speaking ethnic groups who could join the Gurkha army. In urban areas like Kathmandu, Tamangs also engage in various occupations such as porters, carpet weavers, tempo 7 and taxi drivers, and Thanka paintersartists, and a few are found as teachers, lawyers, pastors, and professors. In the rural areas outside the Kathmandu Valley, most Tamangs are living mixed with Bahuns, Chhetris, Newars, Magars, Gurungs, or other ethnic peoples, and comprise 7 A tempo is a three-weel motor vehicle which is used as a public transportation in Nepal. 8 the majority of the population even though there are few exclusively Tamang villages. Despite the substantial cultural diversity within and around the Tamang language community, they have maintained their ethnic identity via their language, culture, and religion. They maintain the unique kinship system through preferential bilateral cross- cousin marriage and clan membership is an important element of their ethnic identity Varenkamp, 1996: 9; Thokar, 2008. Unlikely other high castes, the clan system of the Tamang is not structured hierarchically. Rather, as Fricke 1994:31 noted, the Tamang are an extraordinarily egalitarian people with no institutionalized basis for distinguishing the status of clans. The main religions of Nepal are Hinduism 81 and TibetanLama Buddhism 11. Other minority religions are Islam, Christianity, and various traditional religions. 8 Most Tamangs say they are Lama Buddhists. The Tamang language community has been successful in the transmission and use of their mother tongue. The language seems likely to maintain its vitality in spite of increasing education in Nepali and English, and the various challenges related to dialect differences and standardization.

1.3 Brief Overview of Non-Formal Education NFE in Nepal