Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reveals the literature related to the study, which is divided into two parts. The first part is theoretical description and the second is theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

This part discusses more deeply about the key points used in the study which include the Instructional Design Model, Theory of Reading, School Based Curriculum, Blogs, and Materials Adaptation.

1. Instructional Design Model

In designing the reading blog, the writer adapted two instructional models by Kemp and Taba. The instructional design models are important since they give the systematic steps or framework to design the reading blog.

a. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

Kemp 1977: 7 stated that instructional design is “the process of systematic planning that establishes a way to examine instructional problems and needs, sets a procedure for solving them, and then evaluates the results.” This study adopted Kemp’s instructional design model. Kemp 1977: 8 proposes eight stages of instructional design model. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 9 1 Considering goals and listing topics This stage includes identifying goals, selecting topics, and listing general purposes. Goal has the broadest scope, it is what the learners are expected to achieve at the very end of the learning process. Meanwhile, the scope of topic is in the course program, it is the basis for the instruction. Topics are sequenced according to a logical organization, knowledge and skills learners have acquired previously, and according to subject preferences or teaching experiences of the teachers. 2 Enumerating the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed There are some factors needed to take into account: learners’ academic and social factors, learning conditions, and learning styles. Learning conditions are groups of factors that can affect the learners in learning process, including physical, emotional, sociological environments, and the learners’ physiological makeup. Learning styles are how each person learns effectively using their own method. 3 Specifying learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioural outcomes Students’ behavioural outcomes can be measured from their cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domain. Cognitive domain includes objectives concerning knowledge, or information, and thinking. Psychomotor domain includes the skills of physical activities. Affective domain involves objectives concerning attitudes, appreciation, values, and all emotions. The three domains PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 10 are closely related in the way that one objective can involve learning in two or more domains, and attitudinal development may precede successful learning the other domains. 4 Listing the subject content that supports each objective This stage comprises the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudinal factors of any topic. Although subject contents can be organized in various ways from simple to complex, concrete to abstract, specific to general –or vice versa, etc., it is possible to choose and order them according to the general purpose of the instruction. 5 Developing pre-assessments to determine the student’s background through a prerequisite test and to present level of knowledge about the topic through a pre-test The results of pre-requisite test can be viewed as an indicator showing the students’ readiness in learning a topic concerning their previous knowledge. Meanwhile, the result of pre-test shows the students’ familiarity to the present topic. The pre-assessments may be necessary to eliminate, modify, or add objectives to the program after the results are analyzed. 6 Selecting teaching-learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives There are three basic patterns of teaching and learning methods: presentation to a group, individualized learning, and teacher-student interaction. Skinner introduced principles of learning which should be applied to those three teaching-learning methods Kemp, 1977:58. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 a Pre-learning preparation: students should have satisfactorily achieved the learning that is prerequisite to the lesson. b Motivation: various learning experiences encouraged the students. c Individual differences: learning experiences should enable the students to learn at their own paces and on their own levels of ability. d Instructional conditions: clearly-stated and carefully-sequenced objectives lead to successful learning. e Active participation: students should be directed systematically to participation activities. f Successful achievement: learning must be structured in such a way that the student is mentally challenged and frequently successful. g Knowledge of result: motivation for learning can be increased when students are informed of how well they are doing during the course of a lesson. h Practice: teaching-learning activities should provide opportunities for the students to use their newly acquired knowledge and skills in many situations. i Rate of presenting material: the rate and amount of material to be learned at any one time or in any one lesson must be related to the complexity and difficulty of the material in terms of the abilities of the students. j Instructor’s attitude: the instructor’s attitude influences the students’ acceptance of new instructional procedures. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12 Similar to the selection of teacher and student activities, the selection of supporting materials can also motivate students and effectively explain and illustrate subject content. The media should be presented appropriately and be able to communicate content or provide student experiences, in terms of an objective within a chosen teaching-learning pattern. 7 Coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. These factors are important because without their existence, the plan will be limited. 8 Evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives with a view to revising and re-evaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement The evaluation can be conducted through written, performance, or media-based tests. A formative evaluation is conducted to know whether or not the program has successfully obtained the objectives. It takes place during development and tryouts. On the other hand, a summative evaluation is concerned with evaluating the degree of students’ final achievement of the objectives. Feedback from both evaluations should be used for revising and improving any parts of the instructional plan that need it.

b. Taba’s Instructional Design Model