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Similar to the selection of teacher and student activities, the selection of supporting materials can also motivate students and effectively explain and
illustrate subject content. The media should be presented appropriately and be able to communicate content or provide student experiences, in terms of an
objective within a chosen teaching-learning pattern. 7 Coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment,
and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. These factors are important because without their existence, the plan will be limited.
8 Evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives with a view to revising and re-evaluating any phases of the plan that need
improvement The evaluation can be conducted through written, performance, or media-based
tests. A formative evaluation is conducted to know whether or not the program has successfully obtained the objectives. It takes place during development and
tryouts. On the other hand, a summative evaluation is concerned with evaluating the degree of students’ final achievement of the objectives.
Feedback from both evaluations should be used for revising and improving any parts of the instructional plan that need it.
b. Taba’s Instructional Design Model
Taba 1962: 345 proposed eight stages in planning a teaching-learning unit.
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1 Diagnosing needs The purpose of this stage is to analyze problems, conditions, and difficulties in
order to generate new emphasis and ideas about the curriculum. It is done by mixing together the existing and the new information to create a new approach
or to fulfil the needs. 2 Formulating specific objectives
In this stage, the general objectives of the school are translated into more specific objectives as what the results of need diagnosis indicated. It is
important to recognize that in planning specific objectives not all objectives are equally achievable in every unit.
3 Selection of content The content selection is conducted in accordance to the need analysis results
and the objectives formulated in the previous step. This stage is divided into three parts. The first is selecting topic. The nature of the topics or units within a
course determines the scope of the study, how to organize the content, and also the learning experiences. The second part is selecting basic ideas. The basic
ideas represent the knowledge that students should master. The last part is selecting specific content. The specific content should be drawn from the
general idea and they should be related with the topic. 4 Organizing content
In this step, the topics, the basic ideas, and the specific contents are organized based on a teaching thinking in which the ideas are generated inductively.
Therefore, the students are able to relate the facts or ideas and later on able to
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apply the knowledge. The contents are organized to enable the students achieve the objectives, not the content mastery. It is also necessary to organize content
based on what content need more attention based on the need diagnosis because it affects the content development and learning experience.
5 Selecting learning experiences Contents are not enough to achieve the objectives, the students need learning
experiences or activities to support the effort. It is important to create effective learning activities which are able to serve multiple objectives. In doing so, it is
important to consider whether or not the activities are 1 appropriate for learning the main ideas and for the maturity level, 2 effective and efficient,
and 3 promote active learning. The learning experiences should be various and represent the process of thinking and learning.
6 Organizing Learning Experiences An adequate learning experience is not merely an inductively ordered activities
but it is organized appropriately to attain concepts and attitudes as well: introduction, development, generalization, and application. Introduction
includes activities which provide diagnostic evidence to the teacher, help the students make a connection with their own experience, arise interest, provide
concrete descriptive data from which to get a preliminary sense of the problems to be dealt with, and create involvement and motivation. Development is the
period of extending the learning experiences, organizing study, and acquiring skills needed in learning process. It is followed by activities of generalization,
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in which students draw conclusions. Finally, learning experience is ended with applying, assessing, and evaluating what have been learned.
7 Evaluating Evaluation consists of determining the objectives, the diagnosis, or the
establishment of baselines for learning and appraising progress and changes. 8 Checking for balance and sequence
After the outline is completed in writing, it necessary to check the over-all consistency among its parts to minimizes flaws in the plan itself. Evaluations
in other aspects are also important: an evaluation of time allocation, a check to whether the organization is sufficiently open-ended to provide alternatives
both for content detail to be used and for ways of learning to allow for special needs, and practical considerations to make sure the plan can be applied at any
school circumstances.
2. Theory of Reading
