Teaching Foreign Language to Young Learners

b. Lev Vygotsky Theory

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian researcher, is famous for his social factors in learning development. Actually, Vygotsky’s view of the basic structural components of cognitions and stages is clearly similar to Piaget’s. The main difference between them is the social interaction that causes development. Piaget seems to view the learner as a solitary figure, meanwhile Vygotsky emphasizes the value of interaction among the students (learning in group). The interaction will produce different learners’ development since through the interaction students can interact with each other and share their ideas, experiences and so on. Besides, Vygotsy also uses the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development (or ZPD) to give a new meaning to ‘intelligent’.

Related to ZPD, Cameron (2005: 6) says the following statement “Rather than measuring intelligent by what a child can do alone, Vygotsky suggested that intelligent was better measured by what a child can do with a skilled help.”

The quotation means that measuring intelligent is better after children getting adult help rather than without adult help. The adult The quotation means that measuring intelligent is better after children getting adult help rather than without adult help. The adult

In addition, Vygotsky (in Sprinthall, 1994: 134) adds that meaningful learning occurs when the teacher is able to engage students in problem–solving activities that are just beyond their current level of functioning. He called this the zone of proximal development. Here is an example of ZPD in a foreign language teaching: When a teacher gives a model of a new question “Do you like swimming?” , Students will be encouraged to ask similar questions. One child may be able to use other phrases he has learnt previously and say, “Do you like drinking orange juice?”, whereas another may

be able to repeat “Do you like swimming” and yet another would have trouble repeating it accurately (Cameron, 2005: 7). The example shows that the ZPD of each student may be different from others.

In line with Vygotsy and Piaget, Sprinthall states that mentored cluster is very useful in a teaching-learning process in general. He says that the mentored cluster can create better atmospheres. Through mentored cluster, students can activate their knowledge through discussion. In the discussion, students can share knowledge, ideas and experiences. Besides, fear, anxiety, and mutism will be replaced by increasing interaction in the mentored cluster. The outcome of the learning process is more positive under peer-led interaction than with In line with Vygotsy and Piaget, Sprinthall states that mentored cluster is very useful in a teaching-learning process in general. He says that the mentored cluster can create better atmospheres. Through mentored cluster, students can activate their knowledge through discussion. In the discussion, students can share knowledge, ideas and experiences. Besides, fear, anxiety, and mutism will be replaced by increasing interaction in the mentored cluster. The outcome of the learning process is more positive under peer-led interaction than with

 Groups of five students meet without a teaching fellow each week.  Teaching fellow acts as resource between section meetings.  Teaching fellow meets with student discussion leader before

and after each session.  One student acts as discussion leader each week. (Sprinthall, 1994: 135)

Implications of Vygotskyan Theory for Language Learning.

The Vygotskyan ideas will help teachers in constructing a theoretical framework for teaching a foreign language to children. Teachers can prepare lesson plans, reading materials and teaching techniques to maximize a teaching and learning process related to the idea of ZPD.

Related to teaching a foreign reading to young learner, the idea of ZPD can be used to develop the task given. Thus, the demands of finishing the tasks and the supports from the teacher should be balanced. If the demands are too high, learners will find difficulties in doing the tasks. They may be lazy and stop working. In either case, learners may finish all the tasks, but they do not understand what they learned. Another example, when a teacher gives too much support in the first language to explain the meaning of a reading text, the learners will not have chance to think about the foreign language. So, teacher should try to create a balance between demand and support.

c. Bruner Theory

According to Bruner, “language is the most important tool for cognitive growth”. It means that language takes part to transfer knowledge and helps the cognitive growth. Therefore, scaffolding and routines are necessary for transferring language. Bruner (in Cameron, 2005: 8) says that “scaffolding is talk that supports a child in carrying out an activity”. Scaffolding is a kind of verbal version of the fine – tuned. It can be done when a mother feeds her baby. Bruner adds “scaffolding has been transferred to the classroom and teacher-pupil talk”. Good scaffolding will help students in learning a second or a foreign language. Furthermore, Wood (in Cameron, 2005: 8) suggests that teachers can scaffold children’s learning in various ways:

Teachers can help children to

By

attend to what is relevant

suggesting praising the significant

providing focusing activities

adopt useful strategies encouraging rehearsal being explicit about organization

remember the whole task and reminding goals

modeling providing part-whole activities

F Table 2. Ways to scaffold children’s learning

(from Wood, 1998).

Meanwhile routines can provide opportunities for meaningful language development. The success of language teaching can be seen from the routines given in the language classroom. Classroom routines may provide opportunities for language development. The examples of classroom activities are teacher talking to the whole class, organizing distribution, perhaps using children as monitors, using appropriate language for pupil’s level for asking pupils to do something, etc. Routines can help young learners’ ZPD to make sense of the new language.

Thus, to make opportunities possible in a foreign language teaching, an English teacher should be aware of the foreign language as an inseparable thing. Cameron (2005: 17) says that it has been common to divide language into ‘the four skills’: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing.

Furthermore, Cameron states that foreign language is indivisible. The figure describes children learning a foreign language (Cameron, 2005: 19)

learning the foreign language

learning oral skills

learning the written language

vocabulary

discourse discourse

grammar

Figure. 3 Dividing up ‘language’ for child foreign language learning

The above figure describes that learning a foreign language is an indivisible thing. Learning oral skills and learning the written language are inseparable. Children will learn spoken language first than written language. Teaching literacy skills which includes learning to read and write in a foreign language needs distinct learning tasks. Teacher needs to plan and to support literacy skills that give knowledge and understanding of literacy issues. The literacy teaching can be integrated with spoken language development.

Related to a foreign language teaching, teaching English to young learners or children is different from teaching adults. Children have different characteristics that need different method in teaching them. The specific characteristics of eight to ten-year old are:

1. Their basic concepts are formed. They have very decided views of the world.

2. They can tell the difference between fact and fiction.

3. They ask questions all the time.

4. They rely on the spoken words as well as the physical world to convey and understand meaning.

5. They are able to make some decisions about their own learning.

6. They have definite views about what they like and do not like doing.

7. They have a developed sense of fairness about what happens in the classroom and begin to questions to the teacher’s decisions.

8. They are able to work with others and learn from others (Scott, 1990: 3-4).

Scott also adds that eight to ten-year old children have a language with all basic elements. They are competent users of their mother tongue. By the age of ten, children can understand abstracts, understand symbols (beginning with words) and generalize and systemize (Scott, 1990: 4).

d. Advantages to Starting Foreign Languages in Early Age

Many advantages are claimed for starting to learn a foreign language in primary school. Brewster et al (1992: 24) says that teaching a foreign language is better to start in the early age.

“The reason most commonly put forward for starting to teach a foreign language early is the indisputable fact that young children have a greater facility for understanding and imitating what they hear than adolescent, not to mention adults. They are less distanced from golden age when they acquired their mother tongue naturally.”

The above quotation means that children are good learners since they have better facility for understanding what they listen to and watch. Those children also like to imitate what they listen to and see.

As the previous explanations of Piaget’s, Vygotsky’s and Bruner’s, starting English lesson in early education will be useful since children are active learners and social human being. Thus, educators must prepare well lesson plans, teaching material, and teaching technique before they teach their students. Lesson plans, teaching aids, scaffolding, routines, tasks and other stimuli should be adapted to the students’ level to maximize output in accordance with ZPD.