Land and language Lynn Landweer ABSTRACT

Individual Respondents 1 Adia, John Arthur. August 2000. Woruka, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 2 Buameya, Joseph. 7 September 2000. Woruka, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 3 Doridori, Pritchard. 4 September 2000. Woruka, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 4 Garairo – a, John Bodger. 24 April 2000. Woruka, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 5 Garairo - b, John Bodger. 7 September 2000. Woruka, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 6 Gabobora Eastern Elder Group: Willington Sarusaruna, Spencer Sarusarua, Praut Rugabuna, Remingius Garairo, John Arthur Adia, Septimus Rukeya, Temple Kanitu, Paulus Paipaira, John Bodger Garairo, Nicholas Banige 22 February 2001. Woruka, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 7 Gerawa, Robertson. 6 February 2001. Wasanaki, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 8 Iimasame, Elliot. 2 February 2001. Pem, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 9 Luai, Thomas. 8 May 2001. Waigani, NCD, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 10 Mapuna, Gideon. 17 February 2001. Magabara, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 11 Midiboda, George. 6 February 2001. Borereta, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 12 Nuayoga, Richmond. 2 February 2001. Pem, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 13 Rugabuna, Praut. 9 September 2000. Tapio, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 14 Soubuna, Kifas. 9 November 2000. Borereta, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 15 Tabogani, Utikas. 15 November 2000. Divediveni, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 16 Wasanaki Elder Group: George Midiboda, Kifas Soubuna, Robertson Gerawa, Utikas Tabogani. 6 February 2001. Wasanaki, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 17 Western Elder Group: Didymus Sipomaga, John Garfield, Frank Davis, Redford Kerina, Matthew Gunisebare, Bartholemew Yababana, Rodney Garairo. 12 February 2001 and 19 February 2001. Woruka, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. 18 Yababana, Bartholomew 2 February 2001. Pem, MB, Papua New Guinea. Personal Communication. Table 1: North Cape Vogel Residents by Ethnic Heritage and Generation Ethnic Heritage Gabobora Doga Gabobora- Doga All Others Total G en er ati o n Elders Number within Era within Ethnic Heritage 176 72.4 19.7 34 14.0 13.2 25 10.3 21.2 8 3.3 11.6 243 100.0 18.2 Adult Core Number within Era within Ethnic Heritage 307 73.8 34.4 84 20.2 32.7 15 3.6 12.7 10 2.4 14.5 416 100.0 31.1 Youth Children Number within Era within Ethnic Heritage 409 60.4 45.9 139 20.5 54.1 78 11.5 66.1 51 7.5 73.9 677 100.0 50.7 Total Number within Era within Ethnic Heritage 892 66.8 100.0 257 19.2 100.0 118 8.8 100.0 69 5.2 100.0 1336 100.0 100.0 Table 2: Gabobora Language Allegiance by Generation and Residence Home GABOBORA Place of Residence Grand Totals Gabobora Heritage Village Other-Language Heritage Sites Total Of Language Allegiance La ngua ge s An uk i La ng ua ge Ot he r La ng ua ge s Coor d. Bi lin gu al s Un kn ow ns To ta l Ca te go ry An uk i La ng ua ge Ot he r La ng ua ge s Coor d Bi lin gu al s Un kn ow ns To ta l Ca te go ry Po pu la tio n An uk i La ng ua ge Ot he r La ng ua ge s Coor d. B ili ng ua ls Un kn ow ns P opula tion Ca te go ri e s Youth Children 0-20 yrs. 192 8 15 215 55 125 14 194 409 247 133 29 pop. of category 89.3 3.7 6.9 100 28.3 64.4 7.2 100 100 60.3 32.5 7.1 Childbearing Cadre 21-40 yrs. 116 15 131 102 69 1 4 176 307 218 84 1 4 pop. of category 88.5 11.4 100 57.9 39.2 .57 2.27 100 100 71 27.3 .32 1.3 Elders 41-79 yrs. 103 6 1 110 57 8 1 66 176 160 14 1 1 pop. of category 93.6 5.45 .91 100 86.3 12.1 1.5 100 100 90.9 7.95 .56 .56 Total Persons 411 29 1 15 456 214 202 1 19 436 892 625 231 2 34 of Population 90.1 6.35 .22 3.28 100 49 46.3 .23 4.35 100 100 70.6 25.8 .22 3.81 of Total Population 51.1 48.8 100 The “Unknown” category includes those children who are preverbal as well as individuals whose language preferences were unknown. Table 3: Language Preferences for All Residents of Gabobora Settlements by Generation Generation Total Anuki Coordinate Bilingualism Other Languages Preverbal Children 292 233 7 27 25 Adults 185 128 57 - Elders 149 113 4 32 - Total 626 474 11 116 of Total Population 75.7 1.7 18.5 3.9 Verbal 601 of Verbal 78.8 1.8 19.3 Table 4: Marital Alliances of Gabobora and Doga Populations Ethnic Group and Gender Total Total Known Heritage Same Ethnicity as Spouse of All of Known Not the Same Ethnicity as Spouse of All of Known Heritage Not Known of Total Gabobora Men 143 133 58 40.5 43.6 75 52.4 56.3 10 6.9 Woman 182 160 69 37.9 43.1 91 50.0 56.8 22 12.0 Total 325 293 127 39.0 43.3 166 51.0 56.6 32 9.8 Doga Men 40 40 8 20.0 20.0 32 80.0 80.0 Women 49 42 11 22.4 26.1 31 63.2 78.8 7 14.2 Total 89 82 19 21.3 23.1 63 70.7 76.8 7 7.8 Table 5: Language Preferences of Gabobora Endogamous Born by Generation Generation Ego’s Priority Languages Children Adult Core Elders Total Other Other Number of Priority Lngs. 6 54.5 5 45.5 11 100.0 Other Anuki Number of Priority Lngs. 4 28.6 8 57.1 2 14.3 14 100.0 Doga L1 – Anuki L2 Number of Priority Lngs. 1 50.0 1 50.0 2 100.0 Anuki L1 – Doga L2 Number of Priority Lngs. 6 17.1 13 37.1 16 45.7 35 100.0 Anuki - Other Number of Priority Lngs. 1 100 1 100 Anuki Other Number of Priority Lngs. 131 37.6 101 29.0 116 33.3 348 100.0 Total of All Languages Number of Priority Lngs. 148 36.0 129 31.4 134 32.6 411 100.0 Table 6: Language Preferences of Gabobora Exogamous Born by Generation Generation Ego’s Priority Languages Lngs. Children Adult Core Elders Total Other Other Number of Priority Lngs. 81 71.7 31 27.4 1 .9 113 100.0 Other Doga Number of Priority Lngs. 3 100 3 100 Other Anuki Number of Priority Lngs. 40 48.2 35 42.2 8 9.6 83 100.0 Doga L1 – Anuki L2 Number of Priority Lngs. 1 100.0 1 100.0 Anuki L1 – Doga L2 Number of Priority Lngs. 3 33.3 5 55.6 1 11.1 9 100.0 Anuki - Other Number of Priority Lngs. 1 100.0 1 100.0 Anuki Other Number of Priority Lngs. 82 42.9 88 46.1 21 11.0 191 100.0 Total of All Lngs. Number of Priority Lngs. 206 51.4 160 39.9 35 8.7 401 100.0 Table 7: Doga Language Allegiance by Generation and Residence Home DOGA Place of Residence Grand Total Doga Settlement Sites Other-Language Heritage Sites Total Of Language Allegiance La ngua ge s Doga Lang uag e O ther Lang uag es Coor d inat e Bi lin gu als Unk nowns To ta l Categ o ry Doga Lang uag e O ther Lang uag es Coor d inat e Bi lin gu als Unk nowns To ta l Categ o ry Pop ul ati on Doga Lang uag e O ther Lang uag es Coor d inat e Bi lin gu als Unk nowns P opula tion c a te g o rie s Youth Children 0-20 yrs. 41 8 5 7 61 6 61 3 8 78 139 47 69 8 15 pop. of category

67.2 13.1 8.2 11.4 100 7.7 78.2 3.8 10.2 100 100 33.8 49.6 5.6 10.8

Childbearing Cadre 21-40 yrs. 25 8 2 0 35 21 23 5 0 49 84 46 31 7 0 pop. of category 71.4 22.8 5.7 0 100 42.8 46.9 10.2 0 100 100 54.7 36.9 8.3 0 Elders 41-71 yrs. 13 4 0 0 17 14 2 1 0 17 34 27 6 1 pop. of category 76.4 23.5 0 0 100 82.3 11.7 5.8 0 100 100 79.4 17.6 2.9 0 Total Persons 79 20 7 7 113 41 86 9 8 144 257 120 106 16 15 of pop. by category 69.9 17.7 6.2 6.2 100 28.5 59.7 6.25 5.55 100 100 46.7 41.2 6.2 5.8 of Total Population 43.9 56 100 The “Unknown” category includes those children who are preverbal as well as individuals whose language preferences were unknown Table 8: Language Preferences for All Residents in Doga Settlements by Generation Generation Total Doga Coordinate Bilingualism Other Languages Preverbal ChildrenYouth 110 61 13 28 8 Adults 64 31 2 31 Elders 52 18 6 28 Total 226 110 21 87 8 of Total 48.6 9.3 38.5 3.5 Verbal 218 of Verbal 50.4 9.6 39.9 Table 9: Progeny of Gabobora and Doga Living Marital Unions Ethnic Heritage Classification Total Ethnicity of Ego’s Birthparents Gabobora Doga Different a 429 199 628 within Ethnic Heritage 50.5 79.6 57.1 Identical b 421 51 472 within Ethnic Heritage 49.5 20.4 42.9 Total Progeny c 850 250 1100 within Ethnic Heritage 100.0 100.0 100.0 a One parent is of the target Gabobora or Doga ethnic heritage, but the other parent does not share the same ethnicity as hisher spouse. b Both parents are either ethnically Gabobora or ethnically Doga. c For which heritage of both parents is known. One parent, typically the father, of illegitimate children is not claimed, even if known. References Atkinson, O. J. 1924. ARM. Patrol reports for patrols dated 1-16-24 to 2-2-24 and 3-13-24. National Archives of Papua New Guinea. Ms. Barth, Fredrik, ed. 1969. Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of cultural difference. Bergen: Universitetsforlaget; London: George Allen Unwin. Cleland, Dame Rachel. 1983. Papua New Guinea: Pathways to independence. Perth, Western Australia: Artlook Books. Dorney, Sean. 1991. Papua New Guinea. Milsons Point, NSW: Random House Australia. Fishman, Joshua A. 1998. Language and ethnicity in minority sociolinguistic perspective. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. Florey, Margaret Jean. 1991. Language shift: Changing patterns of language allegiance in western Seram. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1990. Microfiche. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International. Foley, William A. 2000. Anthropological linguistics: An introduction. Language in Society, 24. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Gibbs, Philip. 2005. Resistance and hope in a theology of land for Papua New Guinea. Australian EJournal of Theology 5 August 2005:1–12. http:dlibrary.acu.edu.auresearchtheologyejournalaejt_5practheol_g ibbs.htm. Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Fifteenth ed. Dallas, TX: SIL International. http:www.ethnologue.com . Hajek, John. 2002. Language maintenance and survival in East Timor: All change now? Winners and losers. In David Bradley and Maya Bradley, eds., Language endangerment and language maintenance, 182–202. London: Routledge Curzon. Hutchinson, John, and Anthony D. Smith, eds. 1996. Ethnicity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kulick, Don. 1992. Language shift and cultural reproduction: Socialization, self, and syncretism in a Papua New Guinean village . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Labov, William. 2001. Principles of linguistic change: Social factors. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. Landweer, Martha Lynn. 2006. A Melanesian perspective on mechanisms of language maintenance and shift: Case studies from Papua New Guinea. Ph.D. Thesis, Graduate School of the University of Essex, Colchester, England. Laycock, Donald C. 1982. Melanesian linguistic diversity: A Melanesian choice? In R. J. May and Hank Nelson, eds., Melanesia: Beyond diversity, Vol. 1, 33– 38. Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, The Australian National University. Merlan, Francesca. 1981. Land, language and social identity in aboriginal Australia. Mankind. 13:133-148. Nekitel, Otto. 1998. Voices of yesterday, today and tomorrow: Language, culture and identity. National Capitol District, Papua New Guinea: Nekitelson Pty Ltd. Palmer, Scott. 1997. Language of work: The critical link between economic change and language shift. In Jon Allan Reyhner, ed., Teaching indigenous languages , 263–287. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona University. Webpage version without Appendix B: http:jan.ucc.nau.edu~jarTIL_22.html. Ross, Malcolm D. 1988. Proto Oceanic and Austronesian languages of western Melanesia. Pacific Linguistics C-98. Canberra: The Australian National University. Topping, Donald M. 2003. Saviors of languages: Who will be the real messiah? Oceanic Linguistics . 422: 522–527. Wetherell, David. 1977. Reluctant mission: The Anglican church in Papua New Guinea, 1891-1942. St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland Press. Wurm, Stephen A. 1991. Language death and disappearance: Causes and circumstances. In R. H. Robins and E. M. Uhlenbeck, eds., Endangered languages, 1–17. Oxford: BERG. Wurm, Stephen A., ed. 1996. Atlas of the world’s languages in danger of disappearing. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Young, Michael W. 1971, Fighting with food: Leadership, values and social control in a Massim society. London: Cambridge University Press. 380 21 Cannibals, Kiaps, and Magistrates: Three Eras Impacting Samo Spatiality, Interpersonal Relationships, and Bible Translation

R. Daniel Shaw ABSTRACT

This paper traces the key colonial events that impacted the Samo people Western Province, Papua New Guinea, who live in the last region to be contacted 1961 and de- restricted 1969. The result has been a changed Samo perspective regarding interpersonal relationships and a shift in the practice of cannibalism. Australian administrative officers kiap in Tok Pisin dealt with cannibalism in the Western Province by using a large police presence and the fear of imprisonment. In 1975 the Samo watched the Australians turn administration over to Melanesian magistrates whose emphasis has been to meld estranged peoples into a nation of “a thousand tribes.” Furthermore, when the Bible was translated into the Samo language, it provided a renewed understanding of human relationships with a broader rationale for the cessation of cannibal raids. Indeed, cannibalism ceased, and centralized villages replaced isolated longhouses. What emerged was a new perspective of those spatial elements necessary for protection and a new rationale for interpersonal relationships. The result has been an altered view of both their land and the people who live on it.