Action verbs involving an action localised close to a boundary

3.6 The relational-word+ri+LM construction Up to now, we have been dealing with clauses which are headed by verbs with a ri+LM PP as a complement or adjunct. However, occasionally, we come across an instance of a construction which can be represented by a relational- word+ri+LM, in which there is a relational word that is not a verb, but rather either a relational noun like te ‘middle’ or an adverb like si ‘down’.

3.6.1 With a relational

noun like te ‘middle’ Note that the relational noun te ‘middle’ is a dependent word which introduces a part- whole relationship, and asks the question: “What is the whole?” or “What am I part of or middle of?” In other words, it needs a complement. And the answer is given by the LM of the preposition ri, as in the following phrases: te ri nkye ‘middle PREP path’ ‘the middle of the path’, and te ri bulo ‘middle PREP night’ ‘the middle of the night’. In example 31 the phrase shown underlined is in the spatial domain as a spatial adjunct. 31 ‘He went until...he arrived IN the middle of the path, unexpectedly he has come across a divide in the path.’ Nkyambe 1.7 In example 32 the phrase shown underlined is in the time domain as a temporal adjunct. 32 ‘The middle of the night came, his brother in law took a knife, he went to cut his neck.’ Nkyambe 1.15

3.6.2 With an adverb like si ‘down’.

First, an example showing the use of si ‘down’ as an adverb, modifying a verb. 33 ‘Go and lie down.’ abagi a- bagi NC5 divide kwa kwa uproot áá áá 3sg. PERF . si si down gya gya lie kɛ kɛ go yɛ yɛ 3sg. INAN . OBJ kying 0- kying NC7 neck kyɛgɔ kyɛgɔ cut kɛ kɛ go áá áá 3sg PERF , kyɛɔng 0- kyɛɔng NC7 knife nɔ nɔ take áá áá 3sg. PERF , wɛ wɛ 3sg. POSS mpoe mpoe brother-in-law , bulɔ 0- bulɔ NC7 nighttime ri ri PREPI te te middle Gyɔ gyɔ arrive , gɔ gɔ SUB nkye nkye path ri ri PREP te te middle gyɔ gyɔ arrive à à 3sg PST … tee tee so much kɛ kɛ go À à 3sg. PST In the following example 34, the same adverb si ‘down’ apparently fills the main verb slot of a clause. However, the verb ‘be’, realised by zero see examples 8, 9, 10 in 2.2.1.1, is present, as can be seen by the translation of 34. In 34 we have taken the trajector to be the verb phrase bɔ́ɔ́-si-nyɛ ‘3sg. PERF . SUBJ - down- 3sg. OBJ ’; we have marked this trajector with a box in the data, and the ri+LM PP is shown with a plain underline. The LM itself is the person’s body, which is a surface, and the bees and wasps are all over that person’s body. There is contact and completeness of coverage here. 34 trajector Biselo nɛ bɛanyɔgwo bɔɔ si nyɛ ri nyoli bi- selo nɛ bɛ- anyɔgwo bɔɔ si nyɛ ri nyoli NC8 wasp thattowith NC2 bee 3pl PERF down 3sg OBJ ABOUT body ‘The wasps and bees, they have come down AROUND his body.’ Nkyambe 1.34. In fact, they are down all over his body. 3.7 Ri+LM PPs in the time margins of a clause Here the ri+LM PP is functioning in the time margin of the clause. The LM itself can be either a time word or a nominalised verb.

3.7.1 With the time word m ɛlɛmɔ ‘morning’ as the LM of ri

35 ‘Tomorrow morning we return.’ Geoffroy 1.9

3.7.2 With a nominalised verb as the head of the LM of ri

In 36 the LM of ri is mpula yong ‘return our’, in which mpula is a nominalisation of the verb ‘to return’. 36 ‘Come the morning, ON our return, the place where we sat down, the baobab branches fell again there in the place where we sat.’ Geoffroy 1.17 tegɔ tegɔ there si si down dyɔ dyɔ stay hɛ hɛ 1pl bandi 0- bandi NC7 place ri ri in wa wa there ndi ndi again, too duma duma fall yɔ y ɔ it perfect bidumo bi- dumo NC8 baobab tree bilang bi- lang NC8 branch , tɛgɔ tɛgɔ there si si down dyɔ dyɔ stay hɛ hɛ 1pl bandi 0- bandi NC7 place , gɔ gɔ sub yong yong 1pl POSS mpula 0- mpula NC9 return ri ri ON mɛlɛmɔ 0- mɛlɛmɔ NC7 morning Gyɔɔ gyɔɔ come . bula bula return bena bena 1pl incl , mɛlɛmɔ 0- mɛlɛmɔ NC7 morning ri ri in Mɛnɔ mɛnɔ tomorrow

3.8 Ri in the domain of the TAM system of the verb

Here we are dealing with the particle ri functioning within the verb morphology itself to mark tense-aspect. The particle ri, in various combinations within the verb structure, expresses the imperfective, the inceptive and the habitual. Clearly, the habitual is understood as a variant of the imperfective.

3.8.1. The imperfective

The imperfective itself is expressed with 1. ri + verb, or 2. ri + verbal nominalisation, or 3. ri + sa + verbal nominalisation where sa is the verb ‘to do’. 3.8.1.1 Imperfective of a state 37 ‘The man, was being stupid like that.’ Tumbo 3.1 38 ‘Tobacco hunger is doing me i.e., ‘I need a smoke Nkyambe 1.37 3.8.1.2 Imperfective of an action ri+ verb 39 ‘He was singing.’ Nkyambe 1.63 3.8.1.3 Imperfective of a process ri+ verb 40 ‘The machete, it was becoming red.’ Kpagara 2.19 belɔ bɛlɔ become:red ri ri IMPERF ī ī 3sg INAN buɔn buɔn machete gyembɔ gyembɔ sing ri ri IMPERF à à 3sg. PST mɛ mɛ 1sg OBJ sa sa do ri ri IMPERF ī ī 3sg INAN PRES kang 0- kang NC7 tobacco nkya nkya hunger , dala dala thus wogala wogala be stupid ri ri IMPERF a a 3sg Morom morom man