are you today?” and “what did you eat yesterday?” Fourth, selective requires learners to listen particular items in a longer passage. They just scan spoken
language in order to understand the global meaning of what they have heard. Fifth, extensive performance is to develop learners’ listening at the top-down
level. As mentioned above, in top down, the learners use their background knowledge to derive meaning. In addition, it aims to develop deep understanding
of spoken language. Hence, this activity requires learners to listen to a conversation, comprehend a message, and listen to lengthy lectures. The last is
interactive performance. It includes discussions, conversations, and debates. So, the learners interact with others and are involved actively in discussions,
conversations, and debates. By practicing those activities, the learners can develop their listening skills.
3 Listening strategies
To facilitate comprehension and to make learning more effective, listeners need to use a number of strategies. Researchers classify listening strategies in
different ways. The first classification comes from O’Malley and Chamot as cited
in Carter Nunan 2001. They identify three kinds of strategies in listening. It includes cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social-affective
strategies. Cognitive strategies involve the process of thinking related to
comprehending, storing input, and using linguistic knowledge Buck, 2001. According to Carter and Nunan 2001, in cognitive strategies, a listener uses their
linguistic inferencing and elaborating the input. Thus, when the listener interacts with the material, shehe tries to understand the input by inferring and elaborating
it. On the one hand, metacognitive strategies deal with self-management activities. It comprises planning, monitoring, and evaluating. In the planning stage, the
listener determines the learning goals and decides what should be achieved. After that, the monitoring stage is employed to check the progress of the learner. The
listener checks understanding during listening and identify the source of difficulty. Lastly, the listener attempts to evaluate the success of an outcome by getting
involved in group or class discussions. Next, socio-affective strategies come from social and affective strategies. Social strategies include the actions which learners
select to take in order to interact with other learners, for example asking questions and cooperating. Meanwhile, affective strategies serve to regulate emotions,
motivation and attitudes, for example self-encourage. Hence, it can be concluded that socio-affective strategies involve interacting with another learner to help
learning or using affective control to help learning task. The second classification of strategies is made by Mendelsohn in Nihei
2002, p. 16. He divides listening strategies into seven major categories. They are strategies to determine setting, strategies to determine interpersonal relations,
strategies to determine mood, strategies to determine topic, strategies to determine the essence of the meaning of an utterance, strategies to form hypotheses,
prediction, and inferences and strategies to determine the main idea of a passage. The third
classification is Brown’s listening strategies 2001, p. 259. Brown mentioned eight strategies for successful listening. They are looking for
key words, looking for nonverbal cues to meaning, predicting a speaker’s purpose
by the context of the spoken discourse, associating information with one’s PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
cognitive structure, guessing at meaning, seeking clarification, listening for the general gist, and various test-taking strategies for listening comprehension.
b. Speaking Skills
Speaking is a productive skill which focuses on producing information. In second language acquisition, speaking involves the development of a particular
type of communication skill Carter Nunan, 2001. According to Burn and Joyce as
cited in Torky 2006, “speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving and transferring information
”. Brown 2001 classifies types of spoken language. It includes
interpersonal or interactional and transactional. Similarly, Bygate 1987 mentions two main kinds of routines, including information routines and interaction
routines. Originally, both Brown and Bygate have the same concepts of type of spoken language. The difference is merely in its naming. Interactional is
maintaining social relationship. Nunan in Richards Renandya 2002 states that i
n interactional, language serves as ‘listener’ oriented. Some examples of interactional uses of language are greeting, small talks, and compliments.
Transactional, on the one hand, is transferring information. It can be said that transactional is ‘message’ oriented, since the function is to convey information. It
includes narration, description, and instruction Bygate, 1987. Both types are important. In many situations, interactional and transactional are mixed. It
depends on the purpose. Additionally, in communication, the speakers are required to cooperate in constructing the interaction or transaction.
To develop learners’ speaking skill, teachers need to consider the core
speaking skills. Goh Burns 2012 mention there are four categories of core PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
speaking skills. They said that these categories can help teachers recognize which set of skills should be focused on. It means that teachers can make such speaking
activities explicitly. Further, those core speaking skills can serve as a frame of reference when teachers want to plan lessons or sequences of activities. The first
core speaking skills is pronunciation skills. According to Goh Burns 2012, p. 59,
“pronunciation skills are the ability to produce the segmental and suprasegmental features of the target language
”. The clarity in pronouncing words and phrases is able to influence the articulation process of speaking. Through
articulation, learners are able to indicate meaning and convey their message. The next core speaking skills is speech-function. It is an important part of
pragmatic competence. When learners communicate, they have to know how to express and interpret the message for the situations that they encounter. In other
words, learners are expected to develop the ability to make appropriate language choices when using language. Several basic functions in interpersonal
communication include explaining, complimenting, requesting, offering, or describing. As an example, when learners ask a request, they may say
“can you help me?” or “could you please …?”
It is not enough just knowing how to express and interpret the message since communication is a two-way process Goh Burns, 2012. When learners
interact, they will exchange greetings, small talks and chit chat, recounting recent experiences, simply to be friendly and compliment. Interaction also involves
making decisions about communication, such as what to say, how to say it, and whether to develop it, in accordance with one’s intentions, while maintaining the
desired relation with others Bygate, 1987. These skills are called interaction- PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
management skills. Thus, in this regard, learners need to learn how to manage interactions, such as initiating, maintaining interactions, and ending the
conversations. Lastly, the ability to organize extended discourse is also important to
speak a language effectively. Here, learner creates extended discourse in various spoken genres through lexical and grammatical choices.
For examples, “on top of that”, “on the other hand”, “to summarize” and “therefore” are several common
discourse makers. Goh Burns 2012 suggest that learners need to draw on their linguistics knowledge about the structure of spoken discourse in using discourse-
organizing skills. In addition, when planning speaking activities or lessons, teachers need to decide what skills need to be developed. Again, it will help
learners focus on the language that is needed.
1 Types of speaking performance and speaking activities
In classroom, students need to apply such kinds of oral production. Similar to listening, Brown 2001 also categorizes speaking into six types of speaking
performance. It includes imitative, intensive, responsive, transactional, interactive, and extensive.
In imitative, learners simply imitate a word or phrase or sentences. It focuses not only on the purpose of meaningful interaction, but also focuses on
some particular component of language form. It means that pronunciation will be being tested. Word repetition is typically used in imitative speaking. Next, in
intensive speaking performance, the learners carry out some phonological or grammatical aspects of language. However, it is only a short part of oral language,
such as sentence completion and reading aloud. Meanwhile, responsive PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
performance deals with interaction and comprehension test, including short conversations, standard greetings, and small talk. In addition, it is a kind of short
replies. For example, the learners reply teacher’s question. An extended form of responsive language is interactive speaking
performance which is divided into two, transactional and interpersonal. There are marked differences between responsive and interactive. It is in the length and
complexity of the interaction. Transactional speaking performance is carried out for the purpose of communicating or exchanging specific information. The
interaction thus happens to exchange information. On the one hand, interpersonal emphasizes in maintaining social relationships rather than transfer facts and
information. In other words, in interactive, the learners have to extend dialogues. Meanwhile, in extensive, the learners need to extend monologues in the form of
oral reports, summaries, or possibly short speeches. To perform any kinds of speaking performance that have been discussed
above successfully, teacher needs to employ various activities. They should be able to provide an appropriate one
by considering learners’ differences and language proficiency. It is used to promote speaking in second language
classroom. Some of the most widely-used activities are acting for a script, communication games, discussion, prepared talks, questionnaires, and simulation
and role-play Harmer, 2001. In acting from script, learners are asked by teacher to act out scenes from
plays or dialogue from textbooks. To perform in front of the class, learners need to rehearse their dialogue first. Here, teacher is as a theatre director who draws
attention to appropriate stress, intonation, and speed. Next, communication games PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
are made for learners to provoke communication with their friends because they have to cooperate in playing the games such as drawing a picture, miming and
solving a puzzle. Other activities to promote speaking are simulation and role-play. In role-
play, learners pretend they are in various social contexts and have a multiplicity of social roles. Teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and
what they think or feel. Role-plays are effective to use when they are open-ended because different people have different views of what the outcome should be
Harmer, 2001, p. 275. Simulations are quite similar to role-plays but they are more elaborate than role-plays. In simulation, learner might bring real objects to
the class to create environment more realistic. For instance, if a learner is acting as a teacher, shehe brings an equipment to teach such as books, materials, realia and
so on. Role plays and simulations have many advantages. First, they are entertaining and motivating. Second, as Harmer 2001 suggests, they increase the
self-confidence of hesitant students because in those activities they will have a different role and not have to take the same responsibility for their utterances and
actions. There are many more activities which can be used to promote teaching
speaking. However, at this point, the researcher just reviews several of them. As mentioned above, in choosing an appropriate activity, a number of factors in
language teaching , such as students’ language proficiency and learner differences
should be taken into consideration. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
