adjective, e.g.:
easier , more difficult in easier tasks, mor e difficult tasks
or by an adverb of comparison submodifying an adjective, e.g.
So
in so
difficult task
, b as adjunct in the clause, either by a comparative adverbs e.g
. faster
in
Cambr idge r owed faster
or in by adverb of comparison submodifying an adverb e.g.
as
in the
she sang as sweetly
. p. 81
B. Substitution
Unlike reference, substitution is grammatical rather than semantic relationship. Principle distinguishing reference from substitution is clear.
Substitution is a relation between linguistic items, such as words or phrases; where as reference is a relation between meanings p.89. Here, an item or items
is replaced by another item or items For example:
I like movies I
do
In the above example, ‗do‘ is a substitute for like movies. There are three general ways to substitute in a sentence: nominal, verbal,
and clausal. Common substitute items are as follows Halliday and hasan, 1976: 91
- Nominal:
one, ones, same
- Verbal:
do
- Clausal:
so, not
Example: a. My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper
one.
b. You think Joan already knows? –I think everybody
does
c. Is there going to be an earthquake? –It says
so.
In a the substitution
one
replaces the noun ‗axe’ on the previous sentence, While in sentence b the substitution ‗does’ replace the verb ‗knows’ which
occurs in the previous interrogative sentence . in the next sentence c, the substitution ‗so’ replaces the clause ‗there’s going to be an earthquake’.
C. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is ‗substitution by zero in other words it involves the omission of an item. This is a case of leaving something unsaid in another way of referring to
ellipsis is as something understood, where understood is used in the special sense of ‗going without saying‘.p.142
Example: Would you like to hear another verse? I know
twelve more
. On the above sentence there is no structural relationship between the two
parts. The second sentence contains a nominal group ‗
twelve mor e
‘, consisting of a Numerative only, for which we have to supply a Head noun ‗
ver ses
‘ presupposed from the first sentence..
D. Conjunction
Conjunction involves the use of formal markers to relate sentences, clauses, and paragraphs to each other. Conjunction does not suggest the reader to
supply missing information by recourse it elsewhere in the text. However, conjunction signals the way the writer wants the reader to relate what is about to
be said to what has been said before.
Conjunction expresses one of a small number of general relations, the main relations are summarized below, with examples of conjunctions which can
or typically realize each relation. a. additive: and, or also, in addition, furthermore, besides, similarly, likewise, by ,
for instance; b. adversative: but, yet, however, instead, on the other hand, nevertheless at any
rate, as a matter of fact; c. causal: so, consequently, it follows, for, because, under the circumstances, for
this reason; d. continuatives: now, of course, well, anyway, surely, after all.
Baker, 1992: 191
Halliday and Hasan p.230-231 consider this way: „given a particular
semantic relation which can oper ate conjunctively, then any expr ession of t hat r elation, with or without a demonstr ative or other r eference a conjunctive item,
will be considered to fall within the category of conjunction.’ Halliday and Hasan admit that reference item this serves a cohesive
function; however, due to the fact that some conjunctive adverbs have their origin in the construction of a demonstrative plus a preposition e.g.: therefore, they
assume such an expression as despite this included under the heading of conjunction.
E. Lexical Cohesion
