Goals of Semantic Theory Figurative Expressions

abstraction, but it is helpful to note that it is an abstraction that can be entertained in the mind of language user.

2.3 Goals of Semantic Theory

There are two questions which must be answered concerning with the goals of semantics theory; what should a semantics theory do and how should it do it? A semantics theory should attribute to each expression in the language which the semantics properties and relations. The answer to the second question is that a semantics theory should have at least two kinds of constraints: a. A semantics theory of naural language should be finite; people are capable of storing only a finite amount of information but they nevertheless learn the semantics of natural language b. A semantics theory of natural language should reflect the fact, except for idioms, expressions are compositional. This means that their meaning is determined by the meaning of its constituents and their grammatical relations.

2.4 Figurative Expressions

2.4.1 Definition of Figurative Expressions

As had described above, there are two kinds of meaning in speaker point of view. They are literal meaning and non-literal meaning. In this thesis, the writer just took the non-literal aspect as the main object. One way of speaking non-literally is figure of speech or figurative expressions. Bekson and Ganz 1957:80 state, “Figurative language is language which makes use of certain devices called ‘figure of speech’, most of which are techniques for comparing dissimilar objects, to achieve effects beyond the range of literal language”. Figurative expressions are a rhetorical form of how to use words in speaking or writing to convince or persuade the audience. Figurative expressions are used to Universitas Sumatera Utara assure, persuade, motivate, encourage and fascinate the audience. It is a powerful rhetoric tool to clarify meaning, to provide vivid examples, to emphasize ideas, to stimulate associations and emotions, to ornament sentences and to amuse audience. Figurative language serves to make ideas and meanings more vivid and alive. For example, a. My hair ‘stood on end’. It conveys the meaning of great fear. b. Her feelings were all ‘bottled up’. It means that they were kept under control. c. At the end of the year, the fabric gives the ‘fruits’ of labor to all the employees. The ‘fruit’ refers to the profit, reward, or result of hard work. d. Looking at his man have dinner with another girl, she becomes ‘green with envy’. It means that she is so jealous.

2.4.3 Kinds of Figurative Expressions

There are more than 10 kinds of figurative expressions but the types that are going to be explained are metaphor, personification, hyperbole, metonymy, synecdoche, simile, and irony.

2.4.2.1 Metaphor

Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a name or quality is attributed to something to which it is not literally applicable. New Webster’s Dictionary and Thesaurus:628. According to Tracey 1980:64, “metaphor is the use of words to indicate something different from the literal meanings”. Universitas Sumatera Utara The word metaphor was derived from Greek word; metaphora meaning ‘transfer, carry over’. It is a derivation from meta meaning ‘over, across’ and phereinmeaning ‘to carry’. From those definitions above, the writer come to theconclusion that metaphor the use of words as comparison between two unlike objects by substitute or identified one for another with omitted using ‘like’ or ‘as’ Let us see some examples of metaphor to explain the definition above: The boy weighed a ton. This sentence does not mean that the boy has the weight 1 ton. It is impossible for a boy, or even for human being has a weight upper to 1000 kilograms. The sentence means that the boy is so fat. It’s so heavy to pick him up. They are withered yellow flowers The metaphorical meaning of phrase withered yellow flowers is an analogy to its literal meaning ‘flowers that can not grow well because they are almost dead’. So, the metaphorical meaning of this sentence is that they can not develop their career or life because it is so difficult.

2.4.2.2 Personification

As Shaw 1972:283 says, “Personification is a figure of speech in whish abstraction, animals, ideas, and inanimate objects are having human form, character, traits or sensibilities.” It means that personification is the treating of an abstract quality of thing as if it had human qualities. It is a representation of a thing or abstraction in the format of person. For example, “The leaves danced when the wind blew”. Literally, the sentence means that the leaves move up and doing human activities. Figuratively, the sentence means that the leaves sway when the wind blew. Another example of personification, “The dish runs away with the spoon”. Universitas Sumatera Utara Here, the dish and the spoon as the inanimate object are depicted as human. Literally, it implies that the dish and the spoon run away or doing human activity. Figuratively, the sentence is an idiom means that the supper or eating activity runs well and all the menus are eaten.

2.4.2.3 Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a figure of speech which greatly exaggerates the truth. New Webster’s Dictionary and Thesaurus: 476. The word hyperbole is derived from Greek language, that is hyper means ‘over’ and ballien means ‘to throw’. In other words means that hyperbole wants to emphasize a point with a statement which containing overstatements. The speaker usually speaks exaggerative because he wants to emphasize something. For example, “Her crying is heard until to the seventh sky”, it seems impossible for someone’s crying sound is heard until the seventh sky. At last, to be heard by all around this world, is quite impossible. We called it exaggeration. The emphasis is very strong so the language is out of the truth, It means the speaker does not mean what the words mean. Another example of hyperbole, “I have not seen him for centuries.” Literally, the sentence means that the person has a long life until his age 100 years old. The sentence exaggerates the feeling of a person toward his friends. Figuratively, it means that the person really lose his friend for a long time

2.4.2.4 Metonymy Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object or idea is

substituted by another closely associated with it. Metonymy uses a feature closely associated with the main idea rather than being physically part of it. It described from what Eco 1982:91 said, “Metonymy is the substitution of two terms for each other according to a relation of contiguity”. For example, ‘white house’ may refer to America; ‘cendana family’ may remind us to Soeharto. The following examples will explain the definitions above, here they are: a. Most of the people in Indonesia tried to put away the red shirt Universitas Sumatera Utara b. Let’s call 911 The phrase red shirt in the first sentence has a speaker meaning. Red shirt refers to PDI party. PDI party is identical with red. The right interpretation for this sentence is to put away the PDI party. The phrase 911 refers to the publicservice call for American people. If we need a help or if we are in emergency wecan call this number.

2.4.2.5 Synecdoche

According to Eco 1982:90, “Synecdoche is a substitution of two terms for each other according to a relation of greater or lesser extension part of the whole, whole for the part, and so on”. Synecdoche creates a special kind of metaphor by allowing some part to stand for the whole. Synecdoche is derived from Greek word synekdechestai, where syn means ‘with’; the word ex means ‘to get out’; and the word dechestai means ‘to take’ or ‘ to receive’. For example, ‘Indonesia won Thomas Cup’. The sentence does not mean all the people of Indonesia but what the speaker means here is only the Badminton team of Indonesia, especially for the men’s team. Thomas Cup is addressed to badminton competition and special for men. It is whole for the part. Whole for Indonesia and part for Badminton team of Indonesia and men. In this point, we need to remember that synecdoche and metonymy is two different terms. The distinction is that in metonymy, the exchange is made between two related nouns, while in synecdoche, the exchange is made between two related ideas. Universitas Sumatera Utara

2.5.2.6 Simile

Simile is a word or phrase that compares something to something other, using the word like or as Oxford English Learner’s :1199. In simile, a comparison is made between two different objects which have at least one similar characteristics. The word simile comes from the same Latin word simile, which means ‘like’. What we have to remember that simile compares two unlike objects like metaphor but with the presence of like or as, unlike metaphor, there is no word like or as. To make it clear, here are the examples: a. He runs like a leopard b. Cat’s eyes are like marbles The first sentence ‘runs like a leopard’ is our focus. As we know, when a leopard runs, it is very fast. Therefore, it is well-known as the fastest animal in the world in running. So the speaker means that he runs so fast. The next sentence does not means that ‘cat’s eyes’ and ‘marbles’ are really alike, but the glassy shine of cat’s eyes reminds of the glassy shine of the marbles. A simile is not just an ordinary comparison. If someone says, “my father’s car is like your father’s car”, he is not making or using simile. Such comparisons are literal not figurative. A simile must compare two basically unlike things that are found to be alike. Universitas Sumatera Utara

2.4.2.7 Irony

Irony is a figurative expression which expresses something different from and often opposite to their literal meaning. Gray 1984:108 state, “Irony is a manner of speaking or writing that is dispread through all kinds of literature. Irony consists of saying one thing while it means another.” Irony is a way of speaking or writing in which what is meant is contrary to what the words appear to say. From definition above, we can conclude that irony means the fact is different from what is said. In daily conversation, we find the used of irony. For example, a when teacher is angry to his students for coming late. He will say “Oh, you are arriving here on time, dear. You should directed by our headmaster”. This sentence does not mean the teacher praise or proud of the students by stating the opposite of what he means. The word ‘on time’ actually refers to its opposite, that is ‘late’. So, the teacher is actually mocking the students by praising them. The other example, someone says, “This room is very clean” when he enters a very dirty room. The word ‘clean’ actually refers to its opposite ‘dirty’. So the speaker does not intend to admire the room, but to mock the condition of the room. Universitas Sumatera Utara CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD One of the essential parts in scientific research in analyzing the data is to have a method of analysis. In this thesis the writer apply library research which using written information to support the analysis. As the main object of the analysis, the writer will took the sentences and utterances from book three in The New Testament which contains the figurative expressions. There are some steps which taken in doing the analysis. First, the writer will collect the data that is the sentences and utterances that contain figurative expressions in The Book three in The New Testament. Then the second step, the writer will analyze the data based on the semantics theory. Finally, the writer will make a general conclusion from the analysis.

3.1 Research Design