Technique of Teaching Reading Teaching Reading Using Note-Taking Pairs Technique Compared to

commit to user 25 d. Meaning e. Reference

B. Theoretical Description

1. Technique of Teaching Reading

Technique is a way to do something that consists of some steps. According to Anthony in Richards and Rodgers 2001: 19, “A technique is implementational – that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.” It is also stated in Richards and Rodgers 2001: 20, “The implementation phase the level of technique in Anthony’s model we refer to by the slightly more comprehensive term procedure .” Meanwhile, the procedure itself defined in Richards and Rodgers 2001: 31 as, “This encompasses the actual moment-to- moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method.” In addition, Harmer 2001: 78 defines a procedure as, “An ordered sequence of techniques…. A procedure is a sequence which can be described in terms such as first you do this, then you do that…. Smaller than a method it is bigger than a technique… A technique is a single activity rather than a sequence.” Related to these different hierarchical nations about technique, it can be concluded that technique of teaching is a key andor a way of the practical steps to effectively used in teaching of the instructional decision because it is the real commit to user 26 implementation of approach, method and design in teaching language. Thus, technique of teaching reading means technique for the instructorsteachers in teaching reading to facilitate the learnersstudents in gaining their competency in reading. There are numerous techniques in teaching reading; particular techniques may suit to some students but it is not a certainty will suit for the all others.

2. Note-Taking Pairs technique

a. The Nature of Note-Taking Pairs

Students write notes during lectures, either on handouts produced by a lecturer or separately from these. They also take notes in tutorials and seminars and when reading independently. Barkley, et al. 2005: 135 state, “Although Note-Taking Pairs was originally designed to improve lecture notes, teachers now also use it to help students improve their notes on reading assignment and other kinds of learning activities.” Moreover, “Note-Taking Pairs can be incorporated as regular breaks throughout a long lecture or as a final wrap-up at the end of a class. Some instructors have applied similar strategies to students’ reading notes, as well.” CTL up Dates, 2008. However, there are numbers of students who still cannot take a good note, whereas it is crucial for them, especially the university students, to have a sufficient skill in taking notes for their effective learning process and for gaining good achievement. Barkley, et al. 2005: 135 stated, “Being able to take good notes is an important learning skill, yet many students are poor note takers; their note is incomplete and inaccurate.” In addition, “Effective note-taking is an commit to user 27 important practice to master at university. You have a lot of new knowledge and you need to develop reliable mechanisms for recording and retrieving it when necessary.” University of Reading, 2011. It is assumed that if the students try to develop their ability in taking good notes, they can improve their understanding in reading and revise their notes better after checking their notes with their partners. Poor note-taking leads to poor performance. Designing an exercise which requires students to summarize their understanding of a concept based on notes taken with directed questions such as what is the definition of a concept, how is it used, what are the three most important characteristics of a topic and receiving reflective feedback from their partner provides students the opportunity to find critical gaps in their written records Starting Point, 2010. Students can also complete their notes by recheck their notes with their friends. According to Barkley, et al. 2005: 135, In Note-Taking Pairs, student partners work together to improve their individual notes. Working with a peer provides students with the opportunity to revisit and cross-check notes with another source. Partners help each other acquire missing information and correct inaccuracies so that their combined effort is superior to their individual notes. In addition, the idea above is supported by another thought. It is stated in CTL up Dates, 2008, Basically, all Note-Taking Pairs involves is asking students to work for a few minutes with a partner summarizing for each other the notes they’ve taken and mutually addressing any gaps or questions. This can improve not only the quality of students’ notes, but can also serve as a mini- review that drives home the lecture’s main points. Furthermore, Note-Taking Pairs provides the students with an arranged step. Barkley, et al. 2005: 135 stated that this technique equip students with a commit to user 28 structured activity to pool information, fill in gaps, check for and correct mistakes, and help each other learn to be better note takers. 1 Types of Note-Taking Pairs There are two types of note-taking; passive note-taking and active note- taking. The most effective note-taking is active not passive. Active learning helps the students to make meaning from what they learn, passive learning is allowing themselves to be an empty vessel into which knowledge is poured with no way of organising or making meaning from it. The students are less likely to remember things they learn passively which mean more checking their notes while they are writing assignment and more repeated effort when they come to revise. The criteria of both passive and active note-taking are stated in University of Reading 2011 as follows. Passive note-taking includes: i underlining words ii cutting and pasting from online documents iii trying to write everything you hear in a lecture iv copying slides from the screen v copying lots of direct quotes rather than putting the ideas in your own words vi writing notes on everything you read, because youre not sure what will turn out to be important vii not evaluating or criticising the sources you use, but just accepting them as suitable evidence commit to user 29 Active note-taking means: i thinking about what you want to get out of your research before you start ii looking for answers to any questions you may have about the topic iii looking for connections within the topic youre studying, and to other topics on your course iv writing notes mostly in your own words - your own explanation of what something says or means v recording direct quotes only when its important to have the exact words that someone else has used i.e. when how they say something is as significant as what they say 2 How to Make A Good Note-Taking Students will know how good their notes are when they try to use them. It is consider important to make notes easier to read, easier to understand and easier to find when you need them. There are some suggestions to make good note-taking as stated in University of Reading 2011. i Make your notes brief and be selective ii Keep them well-spaced so you can see individual points and add more details later if necessary iii Show the relationships between the main points link with a line along which you write how they relate to each other, for instance iv Use your own words to summarise - imagine someone has asked you so what did x say about this? and write down your reply commit to user 30 v Illustrations, examples and diagrams can help to put ideas in a practical context vi Make them memorable using: colour, pattern, highlighting and underlining vii Read through to make sure theyre clear - will you still understand them when you come to revise? viii File with care - use a logical system so you can find them when you need them, but keep it simple or you wont use it. 3 Purpose of Note-Taking To get more understanding and to ease teachers in applying the Note- Taking Pairs as the effective teaching and learning technique, it is important to know the purposes of the Note-Taking itself. There are five points of the purposes of Note-Taking as follows. i In order to take efficient notes, the student is forced to listen carefully and critically to what is being said. ii Taking notes aids comprehension and retention. Personal notes in ones own writing are easier to understand and remember than textbook material. iii Lecture notes should represent a concise and complete outline of the most important points and ideas, especially those considered most important by the professor. iv Lecture notes clarify ideas not fully understood in the text or elaborate on things that the text mentions only briefly. commit to user 31 v Lecture notes combined with notes from textbook material are an excellent source of review. They provide a gauge to what is important in the textbook. Student Learning Center, 2011 Note-Taking helps the students in comprehension processing of information. “But note-taking is also a learning process in itself, helping you to process and understand the information you receive.” University of Reading, 2011. In addition, when students check their notes with their friends they can advance their understanding by reviewing the notes. It is stated in Schulz, 2011, “The objective of note-taking is to enable students to take something from one another’s notes to improve their own.” It can be concluded that Note-Taking aids the students improving a deep comprehension and retention of the ideas of their lesson, outlining of important ideas, clarification of the ideas, and as an excellent source of review. 4 Graphic Organizers for Note-Taking According to McKnight 2010: 175 there are some graphic organizers can be used for Note-Taking and Study Skills: Cornell Notes, Three-Column Notes, T Notes, Analysis Notes, Summary Organizers, Journalist Graphic Organizer, Story Board Notes: Three Frame, Story Board Notes: Six Frame, Outline Notes, The Five Senses, and Cycle or Food Chain. Moreover, there are two kinds of way in make the effective note-taking as stated in University of Reading 2011. They are the linear notes and spidergrams, where these two forms of note-taking are useful for different things. commit to user 32 Cornell Notes Developed by Walter Pauk, an education professor at Cornell University in the 1950s, Cornell Notes is a widely used and accepted strategy for taking notes. The students should take notes in the right-hand column of the organizer; the left- hand column is for corresponding questions, main points, or ideas. The bottom space prompts students to summarize the information they have recorded. Figure 2.1. Cornell Notes Tips for Classroom Implementation Model this strategy for the students and remind them of the five Rs of note taking: - Record the most important or emphasized information. - Reduce and synthesize information wherever possible, making it as concise as you can. commit to user 33 - Recite: read your notes aloud. - Reflect and consider how this information is connected to your personal experiences and what you already know. - Review: look over your notes more than once. Cornell Notes are most frequently used at the high school level. Oftentimes when the students are assigned textbooks to read, they are faced with text that is densely packed with information. Cornell Notes are a structure that helps students pull out the key ideas and details. The figure 2.1. above is one of the examples of the Cornell Notes. Three-Column Notes This strategy should be used as a during reading or after reading activity. For a during reading activity, you and students complete the organizer together. The first column is used to record the topic of the text or discussion. In the second column, students should record what they learned from reading the text or from discussion. In the third column, the students will write their ideas and opinions as they reflect on the information about the topic. Make sure that you model the strategy and explain how to use the column note structure. Tips for Classroom Implementation As the students progress from the first column to the 3rd, explain that they are carefully narrowing the topic. The first column will have the main topic recorded and as they progress to the second and third document, there will be more details and text. The third column should be visually ‘‘packed’’ with details and commit to user 34 information. For some students, offering a visual like sand passing through a funnel, this can aid their understanding. The figure 2.2. below are the examples of the Three-Column Notes. Figure 2.2. Three-Column Notes T Notes This graphic organizer facilitates students’ ability to compare ideas and concepts. Use the space at the bottom of the organizer page for students to record their opinions about the ideas and to summarize the recorded information. The students identify key ideas and concepts, and as they record this information, they begin to develop language for the comparison of ideas. Students also learn how to extend ideas and information as they record parallels on each side of the graphic organizer. For example, when a statement or fact is recorded in the left-hand column, a parallel is required in the right-hand column. The students’ experience commit to user 35 in creating notes with the T Notes graphic organizer prepares them to write compare-contrast compositions. Figure 2.3. T Notes Tips for Classroom Implementation You should model this graphic organizer for the students. Using different colored markers or pens for each area of the graphic organizer is an effective way to emphasize the different kinds of information. The figure 2.3. above is one of the examples of the Three-Column Notes. Analysis Notes One of the greatest obstacles for struggling readers is the ability to pull out main ideas and details from a narrative text. Plot analysis notes prompt the reader to identify important information while applying elements of plot. Plot analysis commit to user 36 notes are quite different from a multiple-choice assessment in that students need to know and apply literary elements to a narrative text. Figure 2.4. Analysis Notes Tips for Classroom Implementation You will need to model this graphic organizer. Instruct the students that they must determine what is important from the text. Let the students know that there may be instances when all the plot elements cannot be applied. This is an effective tool for assessing students’ reading comprehension. In general terms, the more the students are able to add detail and personal comments to their notes, the greater their comprehension of the text. Review with the students the elements of plot: - Exposition: Usually reveals the time, setting, and c introduce the characters. - Rising Action: An inciting event and foreshadowing are often in the rising action and ends with the climax. - Climax: The turning point of the story. commit to user 37 - Falling Action: The events after the climax that leads to the end of the story resolution. - Resolution: Concludes the action of the story. The figure 2.4. above is one of the examples of the Analysis Notes. Summary Organizers This graphic organizer prompts students to create main categories, supply relevant details, and write a summary. The organizer develops the students’ skills in identifying key information and providing details that facilitate comprehension. Figure 2.5. Summary Organizers Tips for Classroom Implementation You will need to model this graphic organizer for students and explain how it prepares them for assignments like quizzes and tests. commit to user 38 Summarizing plays an important role in learning. On one level, by asking students to summarize important ideas, information, or text, you are checking to make sure that they understand content. Yet on another level, by summarizing what they have learned, students are also opening the door to reflection. When students reflect on what they have learned, they begin to understand why the newly acquired information is so meaningful. This organizer maps out the details that lead students to reflect and to create a summarizing statement. The figure 2.5. above is one of the examples of the Summary Organizers. Journalist Graphic Organizer In their writing, journalists answer the five Ws: Who, What, Where, When, and Why. These questions are essential for writing and for reading text. By answering the five Ws, students will better comprehend texts and be able to articulate what they know and understand through their own writing. Tips for Classroom Implementation You will need to model this graphic organizer. After they have filled out the organizer, asking students the additional questions “What do you know now?” and “Why is it important?” fosters personal response and greater comprehension. I love to ask my students these two questions. I learn a great deal about their thinking and what I need to do next as their teacher. It is through reflection, as prompted by these two questions, that students are more likely to synthesize what they are learning. The figure 2.6. below is one of the examples of the Journalist Graphic Organizers. commit to user 39 Figure 2.6. Journalist Graphic Organizers Story Board Notes: Three Frame and Six Frame When students visually represent what they are learning, they increase their understanding and comprehension, and the Story Board graphic organizer facilitates this process. The boxes prompt the student to create visual images of an episode, event, or scene. Each box represents a scene, main event, step, or stage. The three-frame story board prompts students to focus on the beginning, middle, or end of a story or the situation, problem, and solution for a history lesson or science experiment, for example. These story frames are also applicable for problem solving in mathematics. The three boxes can present the problem, the approach to solving the problem, and then the final solution. The line in each box prompts students to use words to explain what they are portraying. This graphic organizer prompts students to think in both words and pictures. By identifying key commit to user 40 information, students develop their skills in academic literacy and critical thinking. You can use it to assess the students’ understanding of newly acquired material. Figure 2.7. Story Board Notes: Three Frame Figure 2.8. Story Board Notes: Six Frame Tips for Classroom Implementation You will need to model how to use this graphic organizer. Encourage students to put as much detail as possible into their visualizations. Although story boards appear to be a simplistic activity, they aren’t. We know that having students visually represent what they read helps them comprehend the text. We also know that when activities incorporate several intelligences, students have improved comprehension. Story Boards incorporate visual, kinesthetic, artistic, and, if the students are working in pairs or groups, social-emotional learning. I witnessed this in my own classroom as well as that of my friend Mary Green, who teaches seventh graders in Chicago. Mary’s students were clearly developing their commit to user 41 comprehension skills as we observed how the students’ story boards contained an increasing amount of detail as they read novels in literature circles. The figure 2.7. and figure 2.8. above are the examples of the Story Board Notes: Three Frame and Six Frame. Outline Notes I remember when I learned how to take notes in outline form during my freshman year of high school. Even today, I still take notes using this method of organization. Although a traditional strategy for taking notes, it is still quite helpful and an effective strategy for organizing information and generating ideas. Outline note taking is particularly effective with textbooks, as they are themselves structured in outline form. Figure 2.9. Outline Notes commit to user 42 Tips for Classroom Implementation You should model this graphic organizer for the students. It is also important to note that the most recent versions of word processing programs are especially useful for outlining. You could draw on these programs to teach outlining. However, not all students have access to this technology in the classroom, and a ‘‘hard copy’’ provides a great introduction to this strategy. The figure 2.9. above is one of the examples of the Outline Notes. The Five Senses Using the five senses sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch facilitates students’ ability to identify and comprehend new information, as well as prompts them to extend what they know and understand about the information. Model this graphic organizer for students. Figure 2.10. The Five Senses commit to user 43 The figure 2.10. above is one of the examples of The Five Senses. Cycle or Food Chain This graphic organizer prompts students to identify important and critical information in a sequence. It is especially useful for creating a plot chart for a narrative text, illustrating a scientific sequence, identifying the steps to solve a math equation, or identifying important facts of an historical event. Model this graphic organizer for the students when you introduce it. The figure 2.11. below is one of the examples of Cycle or Food Chain. Figure 2.11. Cycle or Food Chain Linear notes Linear notes are what most people are used to doing. They are written down a page with headings and subheadings. They should have plenty of room for detail. Here are some suggestions for making linear notes more useful. commit to user 44 - Use loads of headings for main ideas and concepts - Use subheadings for points within those ideas - Stick to one point per line - Underline key words - You can use numbering to keep yourself organised - Use abbreviations – and dont worry about using full sentences - Leave plenty of space - for adding detail and for easy reading Spidergrams Spider diagrams are on one page and are good for showing structure and organising your ideas. They are sometimes called mindmaps, which indicates how they are good for making connections clear and visual. Though some people dont like this style of note-taking, there are a number of advantages to using spidergrams: - They keep your notes on one page - so youre less likely to ramble - They show the main points at a glance - They keep points grouped together - good for essay structure - They clearly show where there are gaps which need more research To make a spidergram: - Use whole side of paper, A4 at least - Put the subject in the centre - Use one branch per main point - radiating outwards commit to user 45 - Dont start by making your points too big - you will need more space than you think - You can add how the points are connected on the joining spokes - Make it large enough - enough space to add detail - Add smaller branches for detail examples - Summarise just enough to remind you of point - details and definitions can be added as footnotes - Label with the source The figure 2.12. below is one of the examples of Spidergrams. Figure 2.12. Spidergrams From the discussion above, Note-Taking Pairs in teaching reading can be defined as one of the collaborative teaching reading technique designed to improve the students’ individual note in reading assignment and other kinds of reading activities such as: to find the answers of directed questions, missing information, critical gaps in their written records reflective feedback from pairs, and to correct inaccuracies. commit to user 46

b. The Teaching Steps of Note-Taking Pairs

There are some steps in giving the treatment of Note-Taking Pairs to the students. According to Barkley, et al. 2005: 136, the procedure is as follows. 1 Students individually take notes of the major points from a body of content, such as a lecturer or a text chapter. 2 Students form pairs, at your direction or by choosing partners. 3 Partner A begins by summarizing the main points from a section of the content to Partner B, who offers correction and additional information. 4 Partner B summarizes the next section, and Partner A offers correction and additional information. 5 The partners continue the alternate sharing summaries, corrections, and additional information until they have completed checking their notes. Another procedure of Note-Taking Pairs is as follows. 1 Assign or allow students to select partners. 2 Teach or ask the students to read the text. 3 Stop every 10 minutes for sharing of notes. While reading, stop periodically for a check-in. 4 Instruct students to skim their partners’ notes looking for: 1 information they missed, and 2 information partners have incorrectly noted 5 Students retrieve their own notes and make any needed changes. Schulz, 2011 commit to user 47 In this research, the researcher arranges the procedure of Note-Taking Pairs as follows. 1 Teacher showsgives a reading text and asks the students to read the text a glance. 2 Teacher asks the students to mention what kinds of information they can get from the text. 3 Teacher explains and suggests the students to use the appropriate graphic organizers with the text. 4 Students individually take notes of the major points the main idea, important words and information from a reading text by using the proper graphic organizers with the reading materials. 5 Students form pairs, at the teacher’s direction or by choosing partners. 6 Students discuss and offer corrections each other with their individual notes. 7 During the process of Note-Taking Pairs, students consult their ignorance of the reading text to their partners to get clear understanding of the whole text. 8 Students show the result of their discussion in front of the class and other students give suggestion and inputs. 9 Students revise their notes before collected the notes to the teacher. While doing the note-taking the students are strongly recommended to use the appropriate graphic organizers . Teacher may provide students with some suggestions of what types of graphic organizers can be used in particular reading texts. commit to user 48

c. The Advantages of Note-Taking Pairs

There are some advantages of Note-Taking Pairs as follows: 1 enables the students to avoid unintentional plagiarism 2 helps the students to focus on what is important in what they are reading or hearing 3 helps the students to understand and remember material, and make connections 4 helps the students to structure the assignments they are researching 5 provides a personal record of what the students have learnt more useful than their lecturers or friends notes and records their questions and ideas 6 sets the students up for exam revision University of Reading, 2011 Barkley, et al. 2005: 139 state, “This technique can help reinforce course concepts, but it can also reinforce inaccuracy if both students in a pair have faulty information. Repeat and emphasize the main concept frequently, and review and assess the notes periodically to make sure that students are learning the correct information. It is important that each student take something from the other student’s note to improve his or her own notes, that student will probably resent helping the student who is taking poor notes.” To assess learning, ask student to respond in writing to two questions: i What is the most important suggestion you got from your peer? and ii What do you think is the most helpful suggestion you gave to your peer? If the major purpose of the exercise is to improve written note-taking skills, occasionally commit to user 49 collect notes before the peer conversation and again after. Or to simplify your review, ask students to highlight or indicate what changes they made as a result of discussion with a peer. If you are more interested in assessing the quality of the peer suggestions, ask students to hand in one set of their notes with suggestions by their peer made in a different color pencil.

d. The Disadvantages of Note-Taking Pairs

Besides the advantages, Note-Taking Pairs also bring the disadvantages to the students. They are as follows: 1 Note-taking can distract the students from listening to lectures or while reading a text. 2 Note-taking can put additional stress on those who do not write naturally 3 The students can end up with so many notes that they have to spend twice the amount of time going through them again to find out the important points University of Reading, 2011 Developing more effective note-taking practices will help you to avoid these problems, and make your studying less stressful and time-consuming. To help the students in eliminating the disadvantages of using Note-Taking Pairs, some suggestions are provided. Before the reading activity: 1 Get the general overview of main ideas, secondary points, and important concepts by scanning the text. 2 Identify familiar terms with unfamiliar terms and concepts. commit to user 50 3 Look for other gaps in information which should be clarified or filled in. During the reading activity: 1 Each note is written in a different new page. 2 Notes should include all main ideas and enough subordinate points to clarify understanding. 3 Never use a sentence when it is possible to use a phrase or a phrase when it is possible to use a word. 4 Attempt to differentiate fact from opinion. 5 Pay attention on the word clues. 6 Use abbreviations and symbols wherever possible. 7 Note down the unfamiliar vocabulary and unclear areas. 8 Develop a code system of note-marking to indicate special points. 9 Use graphic organizers. After reading activity: 1 Clear up illegibility in writing soon, check for errors by consulting the partners. Immediate review is essential to retention. Retention will drop sharply and it will more sound as relearning rather than reviewing. 2 Rewrite the notes. It is important to bring into consideration that the students are encouraged always recording the necessary details for any source they use as soon as they start taking notes. Dont wait till they have finished reading – they may forget, or misplace the text. commit to user 51

3. Directed Reading – Thinking Activity Technique

a. The Nature of Directed Reading-Thinking Activity

The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity DR-TA is a teaching technique developed by Russell Stauffer in 1969. It is an explicit teaching technique that focuses student attention on the purpose for reading. DR-TA encourages students to make predictions while they are reading. After reading segments of a text, students stop, confirm or revise previous predictions, and make new predictions about what they will read next. The key step in a DR-TA is developing purposes for reading. Purposes or questions represent the directional and motivating influences that get readers started, keep them on course, and produce the vigor and potency and push to carry them through to the end. It can be used in any content area and with fiction or nonfiction text. The DR-TA encourages readers to become actively engaged with the text through a three-step process: sample the text, make a prediction, then read the text to confirm the prediction. Good readers make and verify predictions as they read. This activity can assist students in developing that skill West Virginia Department of Education, 2011. The DR-TA is a reading comprehension technique that can be used with any age group, but is most commonly used with elementary students. This approach works with both picture books and chapter books, and can be done with individual students, small groups or the whole class. Since it involves predicting what will happen next, DR-TA must be used with a story that is unfamiliar to the students. However, students should have some background knowledge. The commit to user 52 teacher needs to prepare for the activity ahead of time by reading the book and deciding in advance where the stopping points will be for each section Schultz, 2010. It is stated in Karp 2010, The DR-TA is used to foster critical awareness by moving students through a process that involves prediction, verification, judgment, and ultimately extension of thought. It improves reading and supports readers at all levels. The technique works well for readers at all grade levels and ability levels, as well with a range of texts. It also allows readers to self- assess their level of understanding prior to continuing or, should the results prove unsatisfactory, return to the confusing parts for further clarification. As teachers use pre-reading, guided reading, and post- reading strategies, students will learn, practice, and internalize these strategies that are essential lifelong learning skills for reading, writing, understanding, and interpreting content specific materials. Students are administered an inventory of strategies used during in- classroom reading studies. Strategies – pre-reading, guided reading, and post- reading – are applied to the content area of English literature. This class is designed to give students the necessary skills of previewing and reviewing printed text, activating prior knowledge, processing and acquiring new vocabulary, organizing information, understanding visual representations, self-monitoring, and reflecting. DR-TA serves several purposes as follows: 1 Elicits students’ prior knowledge of the topic of the text. 2 Encourages students to monitor their comprehension while they are reading. 3 Sets a purpose for reading. Students read to confirm and revise predictions they are making. National Education Association, 2002. commit to user 53 From the discussion above, DR-TA, then, can be defined as a teaching technique that focuses student attention on the purpose for reading which encourages the students to make predictions while they are reading to make the students become actively engaged with the text.

b. The Teaching Steps of Directed Reading-Thinking Activity

The DR-TA procedure involves having students make predictions about what is going to happen next in the story. They will then read up to a designated stopping point, and determine whether or not their predictions were correct based on what they have read. The DR-TA technique is done in several steps Schultz, 2010. 1 Prepare the students for reading by introducing the book or chapter. Ask students to predict what they think the story will be about based on the picture on the cover and title of the book if it is a picture book, or title of the first chapter and any illustrations if it is a chapter book. Write down students predictions on the board or overhead. Ask them to explain why they think these things will happen. Students can also write down their predictions in a reading journal. Make sure all students are engaged. If they do not all have a chance to suggest a prediction, you can have the class vote on which predictions they prefer so that everyone has a chance to be involved. 2 Either read aloud or have students read silently up to a certain designated stopping point in the book. commit to user 54 3 After reading, lead a discussion in which students will evaluate their predictions as to whether they were correct or not. They should justify their answers by citing specific examples from the reading to confirm or disprove the predictions. Ask students why they think the things happened as they did. 4 Repeat the predicting process for the next section of text. Guide students by asking questions about what they think will happen next, and why. 5 Repeat the discussion process after each section. Continue to ask students to justify their reasoning with examples. Older students can be divided into small groups for the prediction and discussion steps, and write down their predictions and justifications for each section. Other step of DR-TA is as follows: 1 Choose a text. This technique works well with both fiction and expository texts. 2 Activate students’ prior knowledge. Have students read the title of the text, or tell them the topic of the text. Ask students to brainstorm a list of ideas that come to mind when they think about the title or topic. Write those ideas on the board. When using this strategy with a piece of fiction, you might have students brainstorm a list of ideas that they associate with an overriding theme of the story, the story’s setting, or the author of the story if the author is someone with whom your students are familiar. Students will be making predictions about what they will read about in the text, so it is important that commit to user 55 you activate their prior knowledge on a topic that will allow them to make predictions about what might be included in the text. 3 Have students make predictions about what they will read about in the text. Use all available clues, including the index, table of contents pictures, charts, and tables in the text. Ask students to explain how they came up with their predictions. Do not accept “I don’t know” answers. 4 Have students read a section of the text. Either have student volunteers read aloud, or have students read silently to themselves. If students are reading to themselves, be sure to indicate where students should stop reading. The teacher should predetermine stopping points. They should be points in the text that lend themselves to making predictions. In expository texts, good stopping points are often right after students have read a new heading or subheading in the text. 5 Ask students to confirm or revise prior predictions, and make new predictions. Students should be encouraged to explain what in the text is causing them to confirm andor revise prior predictions, and what is causing them to make the new predictions they are making. 6 Continue steps 4 and 5 until students have finished reading. 7 When students have finished reading, ask questions that promote thinking and discussion. Sample questions: · What is the main point the author is making in this storyarticle? What supports your answer? commit to user 56 · Do you agree with the author’s ideas or the character’s actions? Explain why or why not. · What is the mood of this piece and how does the author develop it? · What would you tell someone about this articlestory if the person did not have time to read it? · Is this like something else you have read? Explain. National Education Association, 2002. In addition, there are some steps that teachers should follow when creating a DR-TA. 1 Determine the text to be used and pre-select points for students to pause during the reading process. 2 Introduce the text, the purpose of the DR-TA, and provide examples of how to make predictions. Note: Be aware of the reading levels of each student, and be prepared to provide appropriate questions, prompts, and support as needed. 3 Use the following outline to guide the procedure: D = DIRECT. Teachers direct and activate students thinking prior to reading a passage by scanning the title, chapter headings, illustrations, and other materials. Teachers should use open-ended questions to direct students as they make predictions about the content or perspective of the text e.g., Given this title, what do you think the passage will be about?. R = READING. Students read up to the first pre-selected stopping point. The teacher then prompts the students with questions about specific information commit to user 57 and asks them to evaluate their predictions and refine them if necessary. This process should be continued until students have read each section of the passage. T = THINKING. At the end of each section, students go back through the text and think about their predictions. Students should verify or modify their predictions by finding supporting statements in the text. The teacher asks questions such as: · What do you think about your predictions now? · What did you find in the text to prove your predictions? · What did you we read in the text that made you change your predictions? NOTE: Writing may be included as part of the DR-TA. As students become more comfortable with this strategy, have each student write predictions in a learning log or on a piece of paper. Then, in small groups, students can discuss their predictions and share their thinking processes. Next ask students to write summary statements about how their predictions compared to the passage Reading Rockets, 2009. In line with those procedures above, there are some processes that a teacher needs to follow of using DR-TA. 1 Before presenting the text to the class: · Select an appropriate text. · Chunk that text at its predictive points, and type it onto an overhead or into a word program if you have access to a projector and a screen . commit to user 58 · Prepare a list of comprehension questions that can be asked throughout the activity. 2 When presenting the text to the class: · Introduce the title and perhaps a supporting image from the text and ask the students to make predictions about what they think the text is about. Ask students to support their claims. · Begin to read each of the “chunked” sections, one at a time. Note: When doing this activity for the first time, read the text aloud to the students. However, once they gain experience with this strategy, have them read the sections silently. Provide ample time for every reader to finish the text . · At the end of every “chunked” section, ask both predictive questions “ Were your predictions correct?” , What has changed since your last prediction?” , “ What do you think will happen next?” and comprehension questions “ who is…?” , “ why do you think the character did that?” , “ what would you do if you were in that situation?” · Repeat instruction 2 and 3 until you reach the end of the text. · Reflect on how the students’ predictions changed. Reviewing the students’ past predictions serves as a comprehension check. Encourage the students to look at how their predictions changed and ask them what made them change their predictions. Depending on the level of your students, you can ask them to consider the author’s role in their predictions and encourage them to look at the strategies that the author used to keep them guessing or to make them change their predictions Literacy Strategies, 2011. commit to user 59 In Bowman-Khrum 2009, it is stated the summary of steps of DR-TA technique as follows: 1 Prepare for reading. Refer students to text or a section of text. - Activate prior knowledge, arouse interest, develop vocabulary. - Preview material. Ask students to survey title, subheads, illustrations, pictures, etc. - Ask: What do you think this story chapter, section, or passage will be about? Encourage predictions. Ask: Why do you think so? - Establish purposes for reading; e.g., to reach some conclusion, to grasp general ideas, to understand sequence of events, to predict events, to follow directions, etc. 2 Read. Ask students to read silently to a predetermined place. 3 Check comprehension vocabulary. Ask questions from Step 1. Some predictions will be refined or reformulated. Ask students How do you know? to encourage substantiation. Ask students to re-read silently or orally as appropriate. Repeat steps 2 3 to end of material. Feel free to skip less important passages or summarize for them. Do a Think-Aloud to let them know why; i.e., model your thinking process as you read a section of the story or text. 4 Check comprehension based on original purposes set prior to reading. Questions should be of varying types text-explicit, text-implicit, critical thinking. commit to user 60 5 Follow-up with activities or assignment. Moreover, the step to a Directed Reading-Thinking Activity is also stated as follows: 1 Ask students to skim a reading selection prior to reading it. Have them note titles, subheadings, illustrations, captions, sidebars, etc. From this preliminary overview, ask students to predict the content or perspective of the text passage. More importantly, ask them to identify why they reached these conclusions. 2 Pick a reasonable break point in the reading selection and have students read up to this point. Challenge students to evaluate their predictions and refine them if necessary. Press students who change their predictions to explain why and offer specific evidencereasons for the change. 3 Repeat the process in steps 1 and 2 throughout all the logical break points in the text until the selection is completed Just Read Now, 2011. In this research, the researcher arranges the procedure of DR-TA as follows. 1 Teacher showsgives a reading text and asks students to read the first sentence in the first paragraph and to predict what they think the text will be about based on first sentence before they read the whole reading text. Teacher is suggested to cover the other parts of reading text and uncover it gradually 2 Write down students predictions on the board or overhead. Ask them to explain why they think these things will happen. Students can also write down their predictions in a reading journal. Make sure all students are commit to user 61 engaged. If they do not all have a chance to suggest a prediction, you can have the class vote on which predictions they prefer so that everyone has a chance to be involved. 3 Students form pairs, at the teacher’s direction or by choosing partners. 4 Students read the following sentences up to a certain designated stopping point point 1, determined by the teacher to confirm their prediction. 5 After reading, lead a discussion in which students will evaluate their predictions as to whether they were correct or not. They should justify their answers by citing specific examples from the reading to confirm or disprove the predictions. Ask students why they think the things happened as they did. 6 Students continue their prediction for the next sentences. 7 Students read the following sentences up to a certain designated stopping point point 2, determined by the teacher to confirm their prediction. 8 Repeat the discussion process after each section. Continue to ask students to justify their reasoning with examples. Guide students by asking questions about what they think will happen next, and why. Students continue the activity predicting and confirming with the text until the last part of the reading text. 9 Students express what kinds of information they can get with this reading technique. commit to user 62

c. The Advantages of Directed Reading-Thinking Activity

There are some advantages of using the DR-TA technique. 1 It encourages students to be active and thoughtful readers. 2 It activates students prior knowledge. 3 It teaches students to monitor their understanding of the text as theyre reading. 4 It helps strengthen reading and critical thinking skills Reading Rockets, 2009. Furthermore, A DR-TA may be used with an individual, a small group, or a whole class. This activity can be easily adapted for a variety of subjects and reading levels. This technique helps strengthen reading and critical thinking skills. As the teacher guides the process, the DR-TA teaches students to determine the purpose for reading and make adjustments to what they think will come next based on the text Adolescent Literacy, 2011. It is also stated that DR-TA is a motivating teaching strategy. Students enjoy making predictions and then finding out whether or not their predictions were correct. DR-TA is also a very flexible technique in that it can be used individually, with a small group, or with an entire class. It can also be used in any subject and can meet the needs of any leveled reader Literacy Strategies, 2011. commit to user 63

d. The Disadvantages of Directed Reading-Thinking Activity

According to Manzo and Manzo 1990: 104, the disadvantages of DR-TA are: 1 The technique is relatively imprecise regarding how to achieve the described objectives. 2 The technique needs has prompted the development of many parallel and complementary techniques. Others disadvantages of DR-TA technique are as follows: 1 Depends on a teacher, teacher who prepares students to reach a deeper level of understanding in the reading process 2 Retention of how to solve the problems is low, because the students have not struggled with the problem themselves. This disadvantage can be overcome by having the students do many complex problems on their own. However, this means that one of the advantages time efficiency is lost 3 DR-TA technique works for only a small percentage of students, not for a great variety. The students who have other than verbal “intelligence”, or who come from different cultural world views will fail.

4. Teaching Reading Using Note-Taking Pairs Technique Compared to

Directed Reading – Thinking Activity Technique In comparing the two teaching techniques, Note-Taking Pairs and DR-TA, there are some general categories and contexts in the classroom implementation. commit to user 64 a. General Categories The general categories of both teaching techniques are illustrated in Table 2.2. below. Table 2.2. General Category of Note-Taking Pairs and DR-TA Category Note-Taking Pairs DR-TA 1 Kinds of technique Is one of a collaborative teaching techniques Is one of a cooperative teaching techniques 2 Student’s dependency Encourages students to be more independent less independent 3 Teacher’s role Teacher plays less role Teacher plays bigger role 4 Subjects Can be used for reading and listening subjects Can be used only for reading subject 5 Indicators Covers more indicators of reading comprehension Focuses on the purpose of the reading itself than the other indicators 6 Reading strategy Encourages students to use skimming, scanning and predicting Only encourages students to use predicting b. Contexts in Classroom One of the examples of the implementation of both teaching techniques is described in Table 2.3. below. Table 2.3. The Example of Teaching Techniques in Classroom Context Institution : STKIP-PGRI Pontianak Subject : Reading II Semester : II Language skill : Reading Genre : Recount text ThemeTopic : The History Meeting- : 1-2 Time allocation : 4 x 50 minutes 2 meetings

I. Competency Standard

Students are able to access the knowledge by determining the main idea, identifying details information; explicitly and implicitly, determining word meaning, and identifying the references from various written texts.

II. Basic Competency

Students are able to respond meaning and rhetoric steps in essay which used numerous written language accurately, smoothly and acceptably in daily life context and to access knowledge in various written text. commit to user 65

III. Indicator

After this reading subject, students are expected to be able to: 1. Identify the main idea; 2. Determine the explicit information; 3. Determine the implicit information; 4. Recognize the word meaning; 5. Identify the reference. Note –Taking Pairs DR-TA a. Teacher showsgives a reading text and asks students to read at a glance. b. Teacher asks students what information they can get from the text. c. Teacher suggests students to use the suitable graphic organizer. d. Teacher explains how to get important information from a text using the suitable graphic organizer. e. Teacher asks students individually to take important information using Note-Taking technique . f. Teacher asks students to make pairs. g. Teacher asks students to discuss and check the notes with their pairs Note-Taking Pairs technique . Teacher monitors and helps the students while discussion. h. Teacher asks some students to present their discussion in front of the class. i. Teacher asks other students to gives suggestion to the presentation. j. Teacher asks students to collect the notes and revise the notes as homework. k. Teacher asks some students to present their Note-Taking Pairs homework. l. Teacher asks other students to comment if needed. m. Teacher asks students to go the tasks in pairs. n. Teacher asks students whether information obtained using Note- Taking Pairs answers all question items. o. Teacher explains and gives suggestions to use Note-Taking Pairs appropriately. a. Teacher showsgives a reading text and asks students to read the first sentence in the first paragraph and to predict what they think the text will be about based on first sentence before they read the whole reading text. Teacher is suggested to cover the other parts of reading text and uncover it gradually. b. Teacher writes down students predictions on the board or overhead. Ask them to explain why they think these things will happen. Students can also write down their predictions in a reading journal. c. Students form pairs, at the teacher’s direction or by choosing partners. d. Students read the following sentences up to a certain designated stopping point point 1, determined by the teacher to confirm their prediction. e. After reading, lead a discussion in which students will evaluate their predictions as to whether they were correct or not. f. Teacher asks students why they think the things happened as they did. g. Students continue their prediction for the next sentences. h. Students read the following sentences up to a certain designated stopping point point 2, determined by the teacher to confirm their prediction. i. Repeat the discussion process after each section. Continue to ask students to justify their reasoning with examples. Guide students by asking questions about what they think will happen next, and why. Students continue the activity predicting and confirming with the text until the last part of the reading text. j. Students express what kinds of information they can get with this reading technique. commit to user 66

C. Linguistic Intelligence

a. The Nature of Intelligence

The idea of linguistic intelligence is derived from one of the types of the eight divisions of Multiple Intelligences by Howard Gardner in 1983. Some researchers and he himself have been used the theory of Multiple Intelligences MI in their works Amstrong, 2003; Amstrong 2009; and Gardner, 2011. This theory as a model of intelligence that differentiates intelligence into various specific primarily sensory modalities, rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability. Gardner in Armstrong 2009: 6-7 divided the functional concepts of intelligences into eight comprehensive categories or “intelligences”. They are: 1 Linguistic The capacity to use words effectively, whether orally e.g., as a storyteller, orator, or politician or in writing e.g., as a poet, playwright, editor, or journalist. This intelligence includes the ability to manipulate the syntax or structure of language, the phonology or sounds of language, the semantics or meanings of language, and the pragmatic dimensions or practical uses of language. Some of these uses include rhetoric using language to convince others to take a specific course of action, mnemonics using language to remember information, explanation using language to inform, and metalanguage using language to talk about itself.