Ahmad’s study “Teachers’ Code-Switching in Classroom Instructions for Types of Code-Switching

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter provides three dominant parts of the study to be discussed. They are: review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework. Review of related studies elaborates the studies done by other researchers on similar topics. The studies similar to this study are taken from Ahmad’s and Sumarsih’s studies. Each of them is reviewed to find out the similarities and differences in order to avoid the topics duplication. Moreover, in this chapter, some theories are reviewed and discussed to find a solid ground on which this study is carried on. Eventually, this chapter reviews the theoretical framework in which this part explains the contribution of the theories and reviews in solving the problems of the study.

A. Review of Related Studies

1. Ahmad’s study “Teachers’ Code-Switching in Classroom Instructions for

Low English Proficient Learners ” Ahmad’s study discusses the perceptions of the learners about the use of code- switching by the teachers in English Language classroom. By using questionnaire technique that is modified to include a 5-point Likert-type scale, instead of Yes-No answer type, Ahmad’s study is focused on finding out whether or not the use of code- switching, by the teachers, serves various beneficial functions to support learners’ learning success, learners’ affective support, and the future use of code-switching in the classroom. Although having a similarity in dealing with code-switching in the classroom instructions, this present study has differences on the focus of the study. Ahmad discusses 1 learners perceptions of teachers’ code-switching, 2 the relation of teachers’ code-switching and learners’ affective support, 3 the relation of teachers’ code-switching and learn ers’ learning success, and 4 the identification of the future use of code- switching in students’ learning. Meanwhile, this present study emphasizes the types as well as the reasons of code-switching used by the lecturers in the classroom instructions as the teaching- learning process is underway.

2. Sumarsih’s study “Code Switching and Code Mixing in Indonesia: Study in

Sociolinguistics” In her study, Sumarsih discusses the use of both code-switching and code-mixing in sort of a particular conversation in eve ryday life. Sumarsih’s study, which took place in North Sumatra, tends to focus on both the use and the reason of code- switching and code-mixing. She finds out that the use of code-switching and code- mixing are not only involving English and Indonesian languages, but also involving North Sumatran’s local languages, Batak Mandailing and Batak Toba. Although the reason of code-switching and code-mixing in her study is similar to this present study, Sumarsih discusses code-switching and code-mixing in everyday conversation, which involves the whole society in three places in North Sumatra, while this present study limits itself by only discussing lecturers’ types and reasons of code-switching in the classroom instructions. B. Review of Related Theories This subchapter provides some theories to be reviewed and discussed. There are three dominant parts related to code-switching to be reviewed and discussed in this subchapter. They are Sociolinguistics, Code, and Code-Switching.

a. Sociolinguistics

This following section provides many ways in which language and society are related. As a branch of Linguistics, Wardhaugh says Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication. Wardhaugh, 2006:13 In addition, Hudson 1996:4 has described Sociolinguistics as follows: S ociolinguistics is ‘the study of language in relation to society.’ In other words, in sociolinguistics we study language and society in order to find out as much as we can about what kind of thing language is. Hudson, 1996:4 Another sociolinguist like, for example, Gumperz 1971: 223 describes that sociolinguistics is an attempt to find correlations between social structure and linguistic structure and to observe any changes that occur. Chambers 2002:3, on the other hand, is even more direct by saying: Sociolinguistics is the study of the social uses of language, and the most productive studies in the four decades of sociolinguistic research have emanated from determining the social evaluation of linguistic variants. Meanwhile, Chaika 1982:2 says that Sociolinguistics is the study of the ways people use language in social interaction. She adds that the sociolinguist is concerned with the stuff of everyday life, such as, for example, how you talk to your friends, family, and teachers, as well as to the storekeeper an-strangers- everyone you meet in the course of a day-and why you talk as you do and they talk as they do. There are some definitions given by the sociolinguists to Sociolinguistics. Trudgill 1978:11, at first, says that ‘while everybody would agree that sociolinguistics has something to do with language and society, it is clearly also not concerned with everything that could be considered “language and society”.’ However, Downes in Trudgill ’s glossary of terms 2003:123, characterizes sociolinguistic research as ‘work which is intended to achieve a better understanding of the nature of human language by studying language in its social context andor to achieve a better understanding of the nature of the relationship and interaction between language and society.’ Wardhaugh, 2006:15 Downes 1998:9 him self mentions that ‘sociolinguistics is that branch of linguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages which require reference to social, including contextual, factors in their explanation.’ PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

b. Code

The general definition of code is that it is a system of rules to convert information, such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture, into another form or representation, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a channel or storage in a medium. https:prezi.comppf0d_a787emse Meanwhile, through the perspective of sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh 2006:88 indicates, it is possible to refer to a language or a variety of a language as a code. Moreover, in the fifth edition of An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh states In general, however, when you open your mouth, you must choose a particular language, dialect, style, register, or variety – that is, a particular code. The ‘neutral’ term code, taken from information theory, can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication. It can actually be used for a system used by a single person, as when someone devises a private code to protect certain secrets. Wardhaugh, 2006:88 Wardhaugh 2006:101 adds that code refers to the particular dialect or language that a person chooses to use on any occasion, a system used for communication between two or more parties. These statements stated by Wardhaugh are supported by other sociolinguists. Rahardi 2001:21-22, for example, states that code can be defined as a system of speech that the application of the language has characteristics that are compatible with the background of the speakers, the speakers’ relationship with the interlocutors and the speech situation there. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Meanwhile, Marjohan and Poedjosoedarmo have thoughts about code as well. Poedjosoedarmo 1978:30 mentions that code usually has a form of a language variant that is significantly used for communication. Marjohan 1988:48, on the other hand, argues that code may be an idiolect, a dialect, a sociolect, a register or a language.

c. Code-Switching

Code-switching as a part of sociolinguistics concerns the switching of code from one to another in an occasion. Poplack 1980:583 states that code-switching is the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent. Meanwhile, Duran, who supports the idea mentioned by Poplack, says that Code-switching is probably strongly related to bilingual life and may appear more or less concurrently in the life of the developing language bilinguals especially when they are conscious of such behavior and then choose more or less purposefully to use or not to use it. Duran, 1994:3 Another sociolinguist, Hoffmann 1991:110 argues code switching is that it involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistics varieties within the same utterance or during the same conversation. Meanwhile, Wardhaugh states People, then, are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code in a process known as code-switching. Wardhaugh, 2006:101 On the other hand, Suwito 1983:67 adds that code-switching is an alternation of code from one code to another. So, when a speaker first uses code A and then switching it for using the code B, this phenomenon of language alternation, therefore, is called code-switching. Moreover, toward Suwito ’s argument Dell Hymes 1972:103 says that code switching has become a common term for alternate use of two or more language, varieties of language or even speech styles. Therefore, according to Rahardi 2001:21, code-switching, in this study, is the use of two or more languages alternately, the varieties of language in the same language or perhaps the speech styles in a bilingual community. Further, in discussing code-switching, the types and the reasons of code- switching is about to be discussed as well. In the two sections below, the discussion is about the types and the reasons of code-switching.

1. Types of Code-Switching

This section provides the general classification of code-switching. According to Poplack 1980:614-615, code-switching is divided into three types: tag-switching, intersentential switching, and intrasentential switching. Still according to Poplack 1980:614-615, tag-switching, which is also known by the name of emblematic switching, tends to deal with the fillers, tags, interjections, idiomatic expression, and even individual noun switches. Besides, while intersentential switching tends to occur at the phrase level or sentence level, between sentences, intrasentential switching often occurs within a sentence. Romaine 1995:122- 123, who supports Poplack’s argument, says that there are three types of code-switching identified. First of all is tag-switching, which involves the insertion of a tag from one language into an utterance which is entirely in the other language. For example , ‘you know’ and ‘I mean’. Tag switching is subject to minimal syntactic restrictions; therefore, tags may be easily inserted at a number of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI points in a monolingual utterance without violating syntactic rules. Next is intersentential switching that involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or another. Intersentential switching can be thought of as a requiring greater fluency in both languages than tag-switching since major portions of the utterance must conform to the rules of both languages. For example is in the Puerto Rican bilingual Spanish-English speech given by Poplack 1980:614-615 Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en espa ol. ‘Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish and finish it in Spanish.’ On the other hand, intrasentential switching is the switching that occurs within the clause or sentence boundary as in this example of Tok Pisin-English conversation What’s so funny? Come, be good. Otherwise, yu bai go long kot. ‘What’s so funny? Come, be good. Otherwise, you’ll go to court.’ Other sociolinguists such as Appel and Muysken 1987:118 states three different types of code-switching: a Tag-switches involve an exclamation, a tag, or a parenthetical in another language than the rest of the sentence. b Intra-sentential switches occur in the middle of a sentence. c Inter-sentential switches occur between sentences, as their name indicates. Appel and Muysken, 1987:118 Meanwhile, Bond 2010:134 also mentioned that code-switching is often grouped into three major types: tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra- sentential switching. Tag-switching involves the insertion of a parenthetical expression, such as a discourse marker or sentence adverbial, from a donor language say, the English you know into an otherwise fully independent clause in the host language. These parenthetical or tag expressions typically express speaker mood or stance. Unlike tag-switching, intersentential switching is syntactically more restricted. Switches between clauses occur at clausal or sentential boundaries, or utterance boundaries in spoken discourse, with clauses from each language faithfully conforming to the rules of their respective languages. Intra-sentential switching, also referred to as code-mixing, involves the insertion of smaller morphosyntactic constituents, such as words or phrases, from one language into another. Hoffmann 1991:112, on the other hand, shows many types of code-switching, which some of them are intersentential switching, intrasentential switching, emblematic switching, and intra-lexical switching. According to Hoffmann 1991:112, intersentential switching is a kind of code switching that occurs between clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or other, as when an adult Spanish- English bilingual says: “Tenia zapatos blancos, un poco , they were off- white, you know.” Another is emblematic switching, or for another name is tag switching. In this kind of code switching, tags, exclamation and certain set phrases in one languages are inserted into an utterance otherwise in another. Next is intrasentential switching, where Hoffmann categorizes this kind of switching as code-mixing. This kind of switching occurs within a phrase, a clause or a sentence boundary. Meanwhile, intra-lexical switching tends to occur within a word boundary. Upon this intra-lexical switching, Donald Winford 2003:126-167, added that intra-word switching occurs within a word, such as at the morpheme boundary. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI These particular types of code-switching stated by sociolinguist above are often found in a conversational interaction, such as in the meeting, in the discussion, and in the classroom when teaching-learning process is ongoing. These types of code- switching tend to explain how bilinguals differ from monolinguals in the way languages are internalized. The use of these types of code-switching is actually related one another to the other section which discusses the reasons of code-switching in a conversation.

2. Reasons of Code-Switching