Lecturers` English-Indonsian-Javanese code-switching in English students` classrooms.

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ABSTRACT

ABAA, GRATIANUS S. A. Lecturers’ English-Indonesian-Javanese Code-Switching in English Students’ Classrooms. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2016.

Language is the system of communication. In a verbal communication like, for example, in a conversation, the language users sometimes have an ability to speak more than one language. Due to that matter, the language users often switch the use of language from one to another. One example of code-switching involves three different languages, which are English, Indonesian, and Javanese, in the classroom instructions produced by lecturers. In teaching English as a foreign language, code-switching is one of the methods applied by the lecturers in the classroom. Code-switching is quite important to be applied in helping lecturers avoid the occurrence of misunderstanding with the students. Therefore, this switch of language is given a special concern in the study.

The focus of the study itself is to answer two main problems. The first is to identify the types of code-switching used by the lecturers in the classroom instructions when the teaching-learning process is underway. Moreover, the second is to identify the reasons why lecturers use code-switching.

There are two dominant approaches of code-switching used in this study. They are the structural approach and the sociolinguistic approach. The structural approach is applied to answer the first problem on types of code-switching, in which there are three types of them; tag-switching, intersentential switching, and intrasentential switching. Meanwhile, the sociolinguistic approach is applied to answer the second problem on reasons of code-switching, in which there are many possible reasons, such as assert power and declare solidarity. For data collection, the methods applied for collecting data were by using record and interview techniques. Furthermore, the data, which were in the form of oral expressions, were transcribed into written form. Thus, the data were prepared for the analysis.

In the analysis, there are 180 code-switching expressions in the classroom instructions produced by the lecturers. From total 180 expressions which are identified, 23 expressions are categorized as tag-switching, 59 expressions as intersentential switching, and 92 expressions as intrasentential switching. Meanwhile, for the reasons of switching, there are 9 reasons for using code-switching mentioned by the lecturers, which some of them are expressing feelings, explaining difficult material, expressing particular terms, and talking about particular topic. In conclusion, the three types of code-switching are found used by the lecturers in the classroom instructions. Moreover, each lecturer has their own reasons for using code-switching in the classroom.

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ABSTRAK

ABAA, GRATIANUS S. A. Lecturers’ English-Indonesian-Javanese Code-Switching in English Students’ Classrooms. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.

Bahasa adalah sistem komunikasi. Dalam komunikasi verbal seperti, contoh, di dalam sebuah percakapan, pengguna bahasa terkadang memiliki kemampuan untuk berbicara lebih dari satu bahasa. Karena itu, pengguna bahasa sering mengalihkan penggunaan bahasa dari satu bahasa ke bahasa lainnya. Satu contoh alih kode melibatkan tiga bahasa berbeda, yaitu bahasa Inggris, bahasa Indonesia, dan bahasa Jawa, dalam instruksi kelas yang diberikan oleh pengajar. Dalam mengajar bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa asing, alih kode merupakan salah satu metode yang diterapkan pengajar di dalam kelas. Alih kode cukup penting diterapkan dalam membantu pengajar mencegah terjadinya kesalahpahaman dengan pelajar. Karenanya, pengalihan bahasa ini diberikan perhatian khusus dalam studi.

Fokus dari studi ini sendiri adalah untuk menjawab dua masalah utama. Pertama adalah untuk mengidentifikasi tipe alih kode yang digunakan pengajar dalam instruksi dalam kelas ketika proses belajar-mengajar sedang berlangsung. Selain itu, kedua adalah untuk mengidentifikasi alasan mengapa pengajar menggunakan alih kode.

Terdapat dua pendekatan dominan alih kode yang digunakan dalam studi ini. Mereka adalah pendekatan struktural dan pendekatan sosiolinguistik. Pendekatan struktural diterapkan untuk menjawab masalah pertama mengenai tipe alih kode, di mana terdapat tiga tipe; tag-switching, intersentential switching, dan intrasentential switching. Sementara itu, pendekatan sosiolinguistik diterapkan untuk menjawab masalah kedua mengenai alasan alih kode, di mana terdapat banyak alasan yang memungkinkan, seperti menegaskan kekuasaan dan menyatakan solidaritas. Untuk pengumpulan data, metode yang diterapkan untuk mengumpulkan data adalah dengan menggunakan teknik rekam dan wawancara. Selanjutnya, data, yang berupa ekspresi lisan, diubah kedalam bentuk tulisan. Kemudian, data siap untuk analisis.

Dalam analisis, terdapat 180 ekspresi alih kode instruksi kelas yang diberikan pengajar. Dari total 180 ekspresi yang teridentifikasi, 23 ekspresi dikategorikan sebagai tag-switching, 59 ekspresi sebagai intersentential switching, dan 92 ekspresi sebagai intrasentential switching. Sementara itu, terdapat 9 alasan menggunakan alih kode yang disebutkan oleh pengajar, yang mana beberapa diantaranya adalah untuk mengungkapkan perasaan, menjelaskan materi yang susah, menjelaskan istilah khusus, dan membahas topik tertentu. Kesimpulannya, terdapat tiga tipe alih kode yang digunakan dalam instruksi kelas. Selain itu, setiap pengajar memiliki alasan tersendiri untuk menggunakan alih kode di dalam kelas.

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LECTURERS’ ENGLISH

-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE

CODE-SWITCHING IN

ENGLISH STUDENTS’

CLASSROOMS

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA Student Number: 114214052

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMS DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2016

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LECTURERS’ ENGLISH

-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE

CODE-SWITCHING IN ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra

in English Letters

GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA Student Number: 114214052

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMS DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS

FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2016

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iii

A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

LECTURERS’ ENGLISH

-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE

CODE-SWITCHING IN ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS

GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA Student Number: 114214052

Approved by

Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S. September 5, 2016 Advisor

Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. September 5, 2016 Co-Advisor

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A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

LECTURERS’ ENGLISH

-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE

CODE-SWITCHING ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLAS

SROOMS

GRATIANUS SILAS ANDERSON ABAA Student Number: 114214052

Defended before the Board of Examiners on September 26, 2016

and Declared Acceptable

BOARD OF EXAMINERS

Name Signature

Chairperson : Dr. F.X. Siswadi, M.A. Secretary : A.B. Sri Mulyani, Ph. D.

Member 1 : Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum. Member 2 : Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S.

Member 3 : Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A.

Yogyakarta, September 30, 2016 Faculty of Letters Sanata Dharma University

Dean

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I certify this undergraduate thesis contains no material which has been previously submitted for the award of any other degree at any university, and that, to the best of my knowledge, this undergraduate thesis contains no material previously written by any other person except where due reference is made in the text of the undergraduate thesis.

Yogyakarta, September 4, 2016

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma Nama : Gratianus Silas Anderson Abaa

Nomor Mahasiswa : 114214052

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul

LECTURERS’ ENGLISH

-INDONESIAN-JAVANESE

CODE-SWITCHING IN ENGLISH STUDENTS’ CLASSROOMS

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasiannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin kepada saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal 4 September 2016

Yang menyatakan

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viii

For my Beloved Parents

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to The Almighty God, Jesus Christ, for blessing me with wonderful people who have never been absent in helping me get through the process of this thesis writing. My deepest gratitude goes to my thesis advisor, Dr. B. Ria Lestari, M.S. for her patience and tolerance during the consultation time. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. as my Co-Thesis advisor, for his corrections and criticism for the improvements of this thesis.

My warm gratitude goes to my lovely parents. I would like to thank my mother for all her prayers for me and her financial support. I would like to thank my father for the company for the last couple of months. I would also like to thank my family in Jayapura and Timika for all their support.

I would like to express my gratitude to the members of Save Orang Utan (SOU); Stefiana, Aldo, Alex, Bertha, Yanzher, and Dimas, for their company in helping me get through the process of writing this thesis. I would also like to thank Syntax Error for the last couple of years.

My gratitude also goes to my schoolmates: Utty, Erick, Everd, and Indra, for sharing their ups and downs in the process of writing their theses. I would like to thank my neighbor, Yosua, for always asking when I will graduate that I got annoyed and angry, and felt the urge to finish this thesis. To Kaka Enda, I thank her for the enlightenment and the encouragement in preparing me for the thesis defense. I am sure there is an endless list of people to thank for, therefore, I would also like to thank everyone who happens to help me in this process but has not been mentioned in here.

Last but not least, I would like to thank Beasiswa Unggulan Dirjen DIKTI Kemdikbud 2011 for helping me out finish my study. I would also like to thank Library of Sanata Dharma for providing the books I need to finish this thesis. I would like to thank all of the lecturers and staff of English Letters Department, Sanata Dharma University, as well, for helping me through this learning process. To all of my humble classmates in Class B batch 2011, I would like to thank them very much for being part of my learning process. I am definitely going to miss all the fun and the quality time we spent in class together.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ... ii

APPROVAL PAGE ... iii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE………. iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH……. vi

MOTTO PAGE ... vii

DEDICATION PAGE ... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... x

ABSTRACT ... xi

ABSTRAK ... xii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……… 1

A.Background of the Study ... 1

B. Problem Formulation ... 3

C.Objectives of the Study ... 3

D.Definition of Terms ... 4

CHAPTER II: REVIEWS OF LITERATURE ………... 6

A.Review of Related Studies ... 6

B. Review of Related Theories ... 8

a. Sociolinguistics ... 8

b. Code ... 10

c. Code-Switching ... 11

1. Types of Code-Switching ... 12

2. Reasons of Code-Switching ... 15

C.Theoretical Framework ... 20

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ……… 22

A.Object of the Study ... 22

B. Approach of the Study ... 22

C.Method of the Study ... 23

1. Data Collection ……… 24

2. Data Analysis ………... 26

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ………. 27

A.Types of Code-Switching in English Students’ Classrooms. 27 a. Tag-Switching ... 28

b. Intersentential Switching ... …. 32

c. Intrasentential Switching ... 44

B. Reasons of Code-Switching in English Students’ Classrooms 57 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 62

BIBLIOGRAPHY ………. 64

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xi ABSTRACT

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xii ABSTRAK

ABAA, GRATIANUS S. A. Lecturers’ English-Indonesian-Javanese Code-Switching in English Students’ Classrooms. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2016.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Code-switching is a part of the study of the relation between language and society, called sociolinguistics. Code-switching concerns itself on the changing of language use from one to another in a single conversation. Wardhaugh (2006:101) mentions that “code” in code-switching refers to a particular dialect or language that a person chooses to use in an occasion. Heller (1988:1) adds that code-switching occurs when a person mixes two languages in a single sentence or in a conversation. Therefore, according to the statement, it is concluded that code-switching is the process of switching language use from one to another occurring in a single conversation. One example of code-switching is the switch of language use from both English to Indonesian and English to Javanese. This switch of language is actually the topic that is going to be discussed in this study. This study discusses lecturers’ code -switching in three different languages: English, Indonesian, and Javanese, in the classroom instructions.

Code-switching is often applied by the lecturers in the classroom to support students’ learning success. In teaching English as a foreign language, code-switching is one of the methods applied by the lecturers in the classroom. According to Norrish (1997:1), lecturers code-switch when the level of English, whether in the explanation or in the textbook, is quite difficult to understand. Since there is a lot of

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misunderstandings in the classroom and the lecturers do not want to spend time giving detail explanations about the misunderstanding or searching for simplest words to clarify the misunderstanding and the confusion in the classroom, code-switching is applied to help the lecturers facilitating a good situation of teaching-learning process. In fact, lecturers apply code-switching as a means of providing opportunities towards the students and also enhancing students’ understanding (Ahmad, 2009: 49). It is argued by Lai (1996: 91) that code-switching is needed to be a useful tool in assisting English in teaching and learning process to avoid the misunderstanding and to make sure that the instructions given by the lecturers are well received and understood by the students. Therefore, this changing of language used by the lecturers underlies this study to be conducted.

This study focuses on the type and reason of code-switching. Poplack (1980:614-615) identifies three types of code-switching. They are tag-switching, intersentential switching, and intrasentential switching. Besides, Wardhaugh (2006: 110) states that code-switching occurs because of many reasons, such as assert power, declare solidarity, and express identity.

In the type of code-switching, although realized by the present researcher that code-switching is significant and useful to be applied in the classroom, the lecturers code-switch, from one language to another, spontaneously. Meaning to say, the lecturers do not prepare to determine what type of code-switching they are going to use. Therefore, this study is going to identify and to classify the type of code-switching based on the lecturers’ instructions. When a lecturer says, for instance, “so,

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kalau iki wes beres, we’ll move to the methodology,” it means the lecturer switches language from English to Javanese using the intersentential switching type of code-switching. Besides, there are many reasons of code-switching provided for the example above. One of the reasons is the students have limited vocabulary in English. Therefore, switching language from English to languages they are more familiar with, in this case Javanese, will help them to understand the instructions. Moreover, the switching can also aim to make more interesting conversation with the students. In fact, code-switching, no matter what language is used, is needed to facilitate the teaching-learning process.

By having this topic, it is believed that the type and the reason of code-switching in classroom instructions spoken by the lecturers are able to be identified and classified.

B. Problem Formulation

1. What types of code-switching are used by the lecturers in the English students’ classrooms in Sanata Dharma University?

2. What are the reasons for using code-switching? C. Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are formulated both to identify the types of code-switching and to identify the reasons of using code-code-switching in the class room. From the identification of the types of code-switching, the reasons of code-switching are going to be identified, as well.

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In short, the types of switching used by lecturers determine the reasons of switching. Therefore, in the objective of the study, the types and the reasons of code-switching are distinct but related one another.

D. Definition of Terms

According to Wardhaugh (2006:101), the particular dialect or language that somebody chooses to use on any occasion is called “code”, which is a system used for communication between two or more parties. In short, in this case, code refers to a language that somebody picks up to use in the conversational interaction with other people.

Meanwhile, code-switching is the term used for the phenomenon of switching one language to another language. It is mentioned by Wardhaugh (2006:101) that code-switching occurs in conversation speakers’ turns or within a single speaker’s turn. Meaning to say, for example, when two people have a sort of small talk and one of them uses language that is not their mother tongue, it is called code-switching. So, concluded by Heller (1988:1), code-switching occurs when a person mixes two languages in a single sentence or in a conversation.

According to Poplack (1980:614) tag-switching, which is also known as emblematic switching, is a type of code-switching that deals with inclusion of tags, including interjections, idiomatic expressions, parenthetical, and even individual noun switches.

In the study held by Jalil (2009:4), Poplack said that intersentential switching is a switch of code that occurs at the phrase or sentence level, between sentences.

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Poplack’s statement is added by Hoffmann (1991:112) who said that intersentential switching occurs between clause or sentence boundary.

Poplack (1980:614-615) mentioned that intrasentential switching occurs within a sentence. It is also mentioned by Appel and Muysken (1987:118) that intersentential switching is one of the three kinds of switching that occurs in the middle of a sentence.

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6 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter provides three dominant parts of the study to be discussed. They are: review of related studies, review of related theories, and theoretical framework. Review of related studies elaborates the studies done by other researchers on similar topics. The studies similar to this study are taken from Ahmad’s and Sumarsih’s studies. Each of them is reviewed to find out the similarities and differences in order to avoid the topics duplication. Moreover, in this chapter, some theories are reviewed and discussed to find a solid ground on which this study is carried on. Eventually, this chapter reviews the theoretical framework in which this part explains the contribution of the theories and reviews in solving the problems of the study.

A. Review of Related Studies

1. Ahmad’s study “Teachers’ Code-Switching in Classroom Instructions for Low English Proficient Learners”

Ahmad’s study discusses the perceptions of the learners about the use of code-switching by the teachers in English Language classroom. By using questionnaire technique that is modified to include a 5-point Likert-type scale, instead of Yes-No answer type, Ahmad’s study is focused on finding out whether or not the use of code -switching, by the teachers, serves various beneficial functions to support learners’

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learning success, learners’ affective support, and the future use of code-switching in the classroom.

Although having a similarity in dealing with code-switching in the classroom instructions, this present study has differences on the focus of the study. Ahmad discusses 1) learners perceptions of teachers’ code-switching, 2) the relation of teachers’ code-switching and learners’ affective support, 3) the relation of teachers’ code-switching and learners’ learning success, and 4) the identification of the future use of code-switching in students’ learning.

Meanwhile, this present study emphasizes the types as well as the reasons of code-switching used by the lecturers in the classroom instructions as the teaching-learning process is underway.

2. Sumarsih’s study “Code Switching and Code Mixing in Indonesia: Study in

Sociolinguistics”

In her study, Sumarsih discusses the use of both code-switching and code-mixing in sort of a particular conversation in everyday life. Sumarsih’s study, which took place in North Sumatra, tends to focus on both the use and the reason of switching and mixing. She finds out that the use of switching and code-mixing are not only involving English and Indonesian languages, but also involving North Sumatran’s local languages, Batak Mandailing and Batak Toba.

Although the reason of code-switching (and code-mixing) in her study is similar to this present study, Sumarsih discusses code-switching and code-mixing in everyday conversation, which involves the whole society in three places in North

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Sumatra, while this present study limits itself by only discussing lecturers’ types and reasons of code-switching in the classroom instructions.

B. Review of Related Theories

This subchapter provides some theories to be reviewed and discussed. There are three dominant parts related to code-switching to be reviewed and discussed in this subchapter. They are Sociolinguistics, Code, and Code-Switching.

a. Sociolinguistics

This following section provides many ways in which language and society are related. As a branch of Linguistics, Wardhaugh says

Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how languages function in communication. (Wardhaugh, 2006:13)

In addition, Hudson (1996:4) has described Sociolinguistics as follows:

Sociolinguistics is ‘the study of language in relation to society.’ In other words, in sociolinguistics we study language and society in order to find out as much as we can about what kind of thing language is. (Hudson, 1996:4)

Another sociolinguist like, for example, Gumperz (1971: 223) describes that sociolinguistics is an attempt to find correlations between social structure and linguistic structure and to observe any changes that occur.

Chambers (2002:3), on the other hand, is even more direct by saying: Sociolinguistics is the study of the social uses of language, and the most productive

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studies in the four decades of sociolinguistic research have emanated from determining the social evaluation of linguistic variants.

Meanwhile, Chaika (1982:2) says that Sociolinguistics is the study of the ways people use language in social interaction. She adds that the sociolinguist is concerned with the stuff of everyday life, such as, for example, how you talk to your friends, family, and teachers, as well as to the storekeeper an-strangers-everyone you meet in the course of a day-and why you talk as you do and they talk as they do.

There are some definitions given by the sociolinguists to Sociolinguistics. Trudgill (1978:11), at first, says that ‘while everybody would agree that sociolinguistics has something to do with language and society, it is clearly also not concerned with everything that could be considered “language and society”.’

However, Downes in Trudgill’s glossary of terms (2003:123), characterizes sociolinguistic research as ‘work which is intended to achieve a better understanding of the nature of human language by studying language in its social context and/or to achieve a better understanding of the nature of the relationship and interaction between language and society.’ (Wardhaugh, 2006:15)

Downes (1998:9) himself mentions that ‘sociolinguistics is that branch of linguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages which require reference to social, including contextual, factors in their explanation.’

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b. Code

The general definition of code is that it is a system of rules to convert information, such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture, into another form or representation, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a channel or storage in a medium. (https://prezi.com/ppf0d_a787em/se/)

Meanwhile, through the perspective of sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh (2006:88) indicates, it is possible to refer to a language or a variety of a language as a code. Moreover, in the fifth edition of An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh states

In general, however, when you open your mouth, you must choose a particular language, dialect, style, register, or variety– that is, a particular code. The ‘neutral’ term code, taken from information theory, can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication. It can actually be used for a system used by a single person, as when someone devises a private code to protect certain secrets. (Wardhaugh, 2006:88)

Wardhaugh (2006:101) adds that code refers to the particular dialect or language that a person chooses to use on any occasion, a system used for communication between two or more parties.

These statements stated by Wardhaugh are supported by other sociolinguists. Rahardi (2001:21-22), for example, states that code can be defined as a system of speech that the application of the language has characteristics that are compatible with the background of the speakers, the speakers’ relationship with the interlocutors and the speech situation there.

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Meanwhile, Marjohan and Poedjosoedarmo have thoughts about code as well. Poedjosoedarmo (1978:30) mentions that code usually has a form of a language variant that is significantly used for communication. Marjohan (1988:48), on the other hand, argues that code may be an idiolect, a dialect, a sociolect, a register or a language.

c. Code-Switching

Code-switching as a part of sociolinguistics concerns the switching of code from one to another in an occasion. Poplack (1980:583) states that code-switching is the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent. Meanwhile, Duran, who supports the idea mentioned by Poplack, says that

Code-switching is probably strongly related to bilingual life and may appear more or less concurrently in the life of the developing language bilinguals especially when they are conscious of such behavior and then choose more or less purposefully to use or not to use it. (Duran, 1994:3)

Another sociolinguist, Hoffmann (1991:110) argues code switching is that it involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistics varieties within the same utterance or during the same conversation. Meanwhile, Wardhaugh states

People, then, are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code in a process known as code-switching. (Wardhaugh, 2006:101)

On the other hand, Suwito (1983:67) adds that code-switching is an alternation of code from one code to another. So, when a speaker first uses code A and then switching it for using the code B, this phenomenon of language alternation, therefore, is called code-switching. Moreover, toward Suwito’s argument Dell Hymes

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(1972:103) says that code switching has become a common term for alternate use of two or more language, varieties of language or even speech styles.

Therefore, according to Rahardi (2001:21), code-switching, in this study, is the use of two or more languages alternately, the varieties of language in the same language or perhaps the speech styles in a bilingual community.

Further, in discussing switching, the types and the reasons of code-switching is about to be discussed as well. In the two sections below, the discussion is about the types and the reasons of code-switching.

1. Types of Code-Switching

This section provides the general classification of code-switching. According to Poplack (1980:614-615), code-switching is divided into three types: tag-switching, intersentential switching, and intrasentential switching. Still according to Poplack (1980:614-615), tag-switching, which is also known by the name of emblematic switching, tends to deal with the fillers, tags, interjections, idiomatic expression, and even individual noun switches. Besides, while intersentential switching tends to occur at the phrase level or sentence level, between sentences, intrasentential switching often occurs within a sentence.

Romaine (1995:122-123), who supports Poplack’s argument, says that there are three types of code-switching identified. First of all is tag-switching, which involves the insertion of a tag from one language into an utterance which is entirely in the other language. For example, ‘you know’ and ‘I mean’. Tag switching is subject to minimal syntactic restrictions; therefore, tags may be easily inserted at a number of

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points in a monolingual utterance without violating syntactic rules. Next is intersentential switching that involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or another. Intersentential switching can be thought of as a requiring greater fluency in both languages than tag-switching since major portions of the utterance must conform to the rules of both languages. For example is in the Puerto Rican bilingual Spanish-English speech given by Poplack (1980:614-615) Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en espa ol. ‘Sometimes I’ll start a sentence in Spanish and finish it in Spanish.’ On the other hand, intrasentential switching is the switching that occurs within the clause or sentence boundary as in this example of Tok Pisin-English conversation What’s so

funny? Come, be good. Otherwise, yu bai go long kot. ‘What’s so funny? Come, be

good. Otherwise, you’ll go to court.’

Other sociolinguists such as Appel and Muysken (1987:118) states three different types of code-switching:

(a) Tag-switches involve an exclamation, a tag, or a parenthetical in another language than the rest of the sentence.

(b) Intra-sentential switches occur in the middle of a sentence.

Meanwhile, Bond (2010:134) also mentioned that code-switching is often grouped into three major types: tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-sentential switching. Tag-switching involves the insertion of a parenthetical expression, such as a discourse marker or sentence adverbial, from a donor language (say, the English you know) into an otherwise fully independent clause in the host

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language. These parenthetical or 'tag' expressions typically express speaker mood or stance. Unlike tag-switching, intersentential switching is syntactically more restricted. Switches between clauses occur at clausal or sentential boundaries, or utterance boundaries in spoken discourse, with clauses from each language faithfully conforming to the rules of their respective languages. Intra-sentential switching, also referred to as code-mixing, involves the insertion of smaller morphosyntactic constituents, such as words or phrases, from one language into another.

Hoffmann (1991:112), on the other hand, shows many types of code-switching, which some of them are intersentential switching, intrasentential switching, emblematic switching, and intra-lexical switching. According to Hoffmann (1991:112), intersentential switching is a kind of code switching that occurs between clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or other, as when an adult Spanish-English bilingual says: “Tenia zapatos blancos, un poco, they were off-white, you know.” Another is emblematic switching, or for another name is tag switching. In this kind of code switching, tags, exclamation and certain set phrases in one languages are inserted into an utterance otherwise in another. Next is intrasentential switching, where Hoffmann categorizes this kind of switching as code-mixing. This kind of switching occurs within a phrase, a clause or a sentence boundary. Meanwhile, intra-lexical switching tends to occur within a word boundary. Upon this intra-lexical switching, Donald Winford (2003:126-167), added that intra-word switching occurs within a word, such as at the morpheme boundary.

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These particular types of code-switching stated by sociolinguist above are often found in a conversational interaction, such as in the meeting, in the discussion, and in the classroom when teaching-learning process is ongoing. These types of code-switching tend to explain how bilinguals differ from monolinguals in the way languages are internalized. The use of these types of code-switching is actually related one another to the other section which discusses the reasons of code-switching in a conversation.

2. Reasons of Code-Switching

If the previous section discusses the types of code-switching, in this section, the discussion is about the speaker’s motivations, or the reasons, for using code-switching in a conversational interaction.

As Mukenge (2012:587) stated that code-switching can be employed to create humor, Gal (1988:247) says code-switching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.

Wardhaugh (2006:110) adds that code-switching can actually allow speaker to do many things such as assert power, declare solidarity, maintain certain neutrality when both code are used, express identity, and so on. Further, Wardhaugh (2006:104) also revealed that there are actually two kinds of code-switching: situational and metaphorical.

Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change according to the situations in which the conversants find themselves: they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one. No topic change is involved.

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When a change of topic requires a change in the language used we have metaphorical code-switching. The interesting point here is that some topics may be discussed in either code, but the choice of code adds a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic. (Wardhaugh, 2006:104)

Wardhaugh (2006:104) says that the reasons for switching from one code to another is actually including solidarity, accommodation to listeners, choice of topic, and perceived social and cultural distance. The real example of the reason of code-switching as mentioned by Wardhaugh above, about solidarity, is the use of “saya” and “aku.” These two Indonesian terms mean “I,” in English. When an Indonesian uses “saya,” it means that the person tends to show “power” and “distance” due to the word that is often used in the formal situation such as in the meeting and press conference. Otherwise, when the person uses “aku,” it means that the person tends to show “solidarity” due to usage of the word that is often used in informal situation such as in small talk and daily conversation. Although the word is used in a sort of informal situation, the word is believed to familiarize each other. After all, the motivation of the speaker is an important consideration in the choice. Moreover, such motivation need not be at all conscious, for apparently many speakers are not aware that they have used one particular variety of a language rather than another or sometimes even that they have switched languages either between or within utterances.

Mukenge (2012:586), on the other hand, in discussing on HIV and AIDS and sex issues in the film Yellow Card, mentions that code switching is used when there is need to avoid directly referring to the words and phrases believed to be taboo in the

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Zimbabwean society. For instance, as described above, sex is referred to as “sleeping around”, or “pumping” and being sexually active is referred to as seeing the opposite sex. Thus, a switch from ordinary language to euphemistic expressions within sentences or speech events is done first of all to save the face of the listener. Code-switching also enables the speaker to avoid using explicit and offensive language in the face of the listening audience.

In fact, when code-switching occurs, the motivation, or the reasons of the speaker is an important consideration in the process. Hoffmann (1991:115-116) states that there are some reasons the speaker uses code-switching in a conversation. There are 10 reasons stated by Hoffmann, which are:

1) Talking about particular topic

People sometimes prefer to talk about a particular topic in one language rather than in another, for example like expressing emotional feelings.

Sometimes, people feel free and more comfortable to express their emotional feelings in a language that is not their everyday language.

2) Quoting somebody

Sometimes, in a conversation, a speaker switches from mother-tongue into a foreign language in order to quote a famous expression, a proverb, or a saying of some well-known figures. The switch involves the words that the speaker is claiming the quoted person said.

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3) Being emphatic about something (declare solidarity)

Sometimes, a speaker who is talking in a foreign language switches the language into the native language in order to be emphatic about something, like, for example, the interlocutor does not understand or does not speak the foreign language as fluently as the speaker. Therefore, the speaker switches the language into native language, rather than keep speaking in the foreign language, in order to have a good interaction with the interlocutor.

4) Interjection (inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors)

Interjection is words or expressions, which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjection is a short exclamation like: Darn!, Hey!, Well!, Look!, etc. They have no grammatical value, but speaker uses them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. Language switching among bilingual or multilingual people can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence connectors. Otherwise, it may also happen unintentionally.

5) Repetition used for clarification

Repetition used for clarification occurs, for example, when a lecturer explains the particular material of the lecture by using language A and repeating the explanation for the same material by using language B. Frequently, the explanation in language A is repeated in the language B literally. A repetition is not only served to clarify what is said, but also to amplify or emphasize the message.

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6) Expressing Identity

Code switching can also be used to express group identity. This happens because the way of communication of one community is different from the people who are out of the community.

7) Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor

According to Arimasari (2013:33) when bilingual or multilingual person talks to another bilingual/multilingual, there will be lots of code switching occurs. It means to make the content of his speech runs smoothly and can be understood by the listener. A message in one code is repeated in the other code in somewhat modified form.

8) To soften or strengthen request or command

Arimasari (2013:33) in her thesis explains that, for Indonesian people, switching from Indonesian into English can also function as a request because English is not their native tongue, so it does not sound as direct as Indonesian. However, code switching can also strengthen a command since the speaker can feel more powerful than the listener because he can use a language that everybody cannot.

9) Because of the real lexical need

One reason for a speaker to switch language from one into another is due to the lack of equivalent lexicon in the languages. For example, when an English-Indonesian bilingual has a word that is lacking in English, the speaker will find it easier to say the word in Indonesian and vice versa.

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10)To avoid other people join the conversation

Sometimes people want to communicate only with certain people or community they belong to. Therefore, to avoid the other community or interference objected to their communication by people, they may try to exclude those people by using the language that nobody knows.

C. Theoretical Framework

In order to answer the problems on the problem formulation, at first the discussion on the theory takes place in understanding the basic concept of sociolinguistics, code, and code-switching. As known, these three dominant parts are closely related and are the basic understanding to the topic being discussed in this study.

Some arguments upon sociolinguistics stated by some of the sociolinguists, such as, Wardhaugh (2006:13) and Hudson (1996:4) are used to know the definition of sociolinguistics itself and its connection to topic of this study. Moreover, the theories stated by Wardhaugh (2006:88), Rahardi (2001:21-22), Marjohan (1988:48), and Poedjosoedarmo (1978:30), are needed to find out what ‘code’ actually is, in relation to this study. After discussing the other two dominant parts related to code-switching, the discussion comes to the topic of the study, switching. In discussing code-switching, one point is taken out from most of the arguments given by sociolinguists, such as Poplack (1980:583), Hoffmann (1993:110), Duran (1994:3), Wardhaugh (2006:101), Suwito (1983:67), Dell Hymes (1972:103), and Rahardi (2001:21), upon

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code-switching, in which it is an alternation of code from one to another in a conversational interaction.

Based on these arguments on code-switching stated by sociolinguists, the discussion further continues to the problems that have to be solved. They are the types and the reasons of code-switching. First of all, in order to answer the first problem on problem formulation about the types of code-switching, the theory mentioned by Poplack (1980:614-615), who categorizes the three types of code-switching, is used. Moreover, the theories mentioned by other sociolinguists, such as Romaine (1995: 122-123), Hoffmann (1991:112), Appel and Muysken (1987:118), are, more or less, similar from the one proposed by Poplack. These theories then are considered as the supporting theories for answering the first problem on the types of code-switching.

Meanwhile, on the other hand, the theory applied for finding out the answer of the second problem about the reasons of code-switching is the theory that is initiated by Wardhaugh (2006:110), who says that code-switching can allow speaker to do many things such as assert power and declare solidarity. Moreover, the theories mentioned by other sociolinguistics such as Mukenge (2012:587), who mentions that code-switching can be used for creating humor, Gal (1988:247), who argues that code-switching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries, and Hoffmann (1991:115-116), who states 10 different reasons the speaker uses code-switching in a conversation, are considered as the supporting theories to the theory mentioned by Wardhaugh earlier.

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22 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the study discusses the object, the approach, and the method of the study. In the object of the study, it puts forward code-switching used in lecturers’ classroom instructions. Meanwhile, the approach of the study introduces the application of approach which supports the study. For the method of the study, it is focused on discussing how the data are collected, organized, and categorized.

A. Object of the Study

As taking place in the field of linguistics, especially sociolinguistics, this study discusses code-switching. Code-switching used by the lecturers in giving instruction in the classroom is the object of this study. Further, this study particularly discusses code-switching, the change of language use, which, in this case, includes three different languages: English, Indonesian, and Javanese, in the classroom instructions given by the lecturers.

This study limited itself in only investigating six lecturers who taught seven different courses. In addition, one of the lecturers taught two different subjects. Moreover, since it contained a lot of instructions, it could provide useful data.

B. Approach of the Study

In discussing code-switching, two dominant approaches of code-switching are used in this study. They are sociolinguistic and structural approaches. These two

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approaches are considered as the most suitable approaches to answer the questions in problem formulation.

Boztepe (2003:3), in his paper, states that the structural approach of code-switching is primarily concerned with grammatical aspects. The focus of structural approach is to identify syntactic and morphosyntactic constraints on the code-switching. On the other hand, sociolinguistic approach sees code-switching as a discourse phenomenon focusing its attention on questions such as, for example, how social meaning is created in code-switching and what specific discourse functions it serves.

In short, the sociolinguistic approach analyzes code-switching from the social context, for instance, what causes code-switching to occur in a conversation. On the other hand, the structural approach is more inclined to the grammatical aspects of code-switching.

These two approaches are used in order to identify the objectives of the study, which are the type of code-switching and the reason of code-switching in the instructions given by the lecturers in the classroom when teaching-learning process is underway.

C. Method of the Study

In this part, the methods applied in the study were the interview, recording, and note-taking techniques. These three methods were applied for collecting data in the form of classroom instructions expressed by the lecturers. This part covers data collection and data analysis.

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1. Data Collection

There were six lecturers from English Department of Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta to be interviewed for the investigation of this study. The classroom instructions given by the lecturers who taught particular courses were the primary data for this study. The data were collected in the classroom when teaching-learning process was underway by using recording techniques and notes.

For the first step, the writer attended each class, one by one, those six lecturers gave lecture. It started from the class of “Lecturer 1” who taught Introduction to English Test (INTET), “Lecturer 2” who taught “English Structure” after that, “Lecturer 3” who taught Stylistics, and then “Lecturer 4” who taught two different courses, which are Language Research Methodology and Pragmatics, followed by the History of Modern Thought course taught by “Lecturer 5, and finally “Lecturer 6” who taught Interpreting. The process of gathering the whole data needed a couple of weeks because the writer had to adjust to each lecturer’s teaching schedule in class.

After finished doing the first step, which was attending each class, for the next step, in each class where those lecturers gave the lecture, the writer used a voice recorder on the smart phone to record the interaction, such as explanations, instructions, or conversations, each lecturer had in the classroom. The process of recording was done without the lecturers’ acknowledge. Besides, the writer was not caught recording by the lecturers in the class. Therefore, the recording process went unnoticed by the lecturers. As the recorder on the smart phone recorded each lecturer’s interaction with the students, the writer occasionally took notes on what the

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lecturers said if there was any code-switching detected. The process of gathering the data in each class started since the class was begun until the class was over. Furthermore, all the interactions each lecturer had in the classroom from the voice recorder were transformed into the script for the analysis.

As known, the process of gathering the data was not only from the classroom instructions, but also from the interview with the lecturers. The interview was done by using interview techniques, recordings, and notes. The process of gathering the data from the interview was a bit different from gathering the data in the classroom instructions, though the techniques were similar. For the first step, the writer made an appointment with each lecturer to be interviewed. Along with that, the writer explained the topic of this study, so the lecturers knew why they were interviewed. As known, the interview was held mostly in the lecturers’ offices. Further, before the interview began, the writer prepared the notes, a pen, and smart phone for recording the interview. When the interview started, the smart phone recorded the interview. Meanwhile, the writer took notes on the lecturers’ answers. The questions asked to the lecturers in that interview were like, for example, “Why do you think about code -switching in the classroom?” and “Why did you use it in class when you were lecturing?” As the interview finished, the data, especially from the voice recorder, were transcribed into written form, into the script, for the analysis.

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2. Data Analysis

The data on the instructions given by the lecturers in the classroom were analyzed and the interview with the lecturers followed.

The data, from the classroom instructions, which had been transformed into the script, were organized in the form of table. It showed the expression of code-switching in classroom instructions given by the lecturers. After that, these data were classified into three different parts to identify the first problem; the type of code-switching. And then, the writer tried to identify the reason of code-switching from the interview with the lecturers. It definitely related to the lecturers’ answers of the interview to the theory used for this study.

After the whole data from the classroom instructions given by the lecturers had been identified and categorized into particular groups based on the types of code-switching, and the reasons for using code-switching had been identified from the interview with the lecturers, the problems in the problem formulation were solved. At the end, the final conclusion of this study was made based on the data analysis that had been analyzed.

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter is divided into two main sections, which are (A) answer for the types of using code-switching in the classroom instructions and discussion, and (B) answer for the reasons of using code-switching in the classroom instructions and discussion. Here the data are used for the discussion and finding out the answer of this study. The data from classroom instruction are used in the section (A). Meanwhile, the data from the interview with the six lecturers are used in the section (B). Further, the theories presented in the reviews are applied in this part. The theory stated by Poplack (1980:614-615) and the supporting theories stated by other sociolinguists are used for the discussion and finding out the answer in the section (A), the types of code-switching. Meanwhile, the main theory stated by Wardhaugh (2006:110) and supporting theories stated by sociolinguists like Mukege (2012:587) and Gal (1988:247) are used for the analysis and finding the answer in the section (B), the reasons of code-switching.

A. Types of Using Code-Switching in the English Students’ Classrooms and Discussion

The types of code-switching applied in the classroom instructions given by the lecturers are divided into three parts, which are (a) tag-switching, (b) intersentential switching, and (c) intrasentential switching.

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a. Tag-Switching

Tag-switching is one of three types of code-switching that deals with the inclusion of a tag. Worth noting that tags in tag-switching are not only literally dealing with tags, but also dealing with words or phrases related to tag-switching, which includes fillers such as, actually, basically, usually, as mentioned by Poplack (1980:614-615). Tag-switching also involves the insertion of a parenthetical expression, such as discourse markers or sentence adverbial (Bond, 2010:134) such as, well, so, right. Tag-switching can be found in a statement or in a question in the initial position, as seen in the Table 1 below:

Table 1. Tag-switching in the initial position

No Expression Language Content

English Indonesian Javanese

1 Biasanya, forty people. √ √ -

2 Biasanya, penjelasan kalian tidak brief. √ √ -

3 Logikanya, it is an analogy, kan? √ √ -

4 Lanjut, number three. √ √ -

5 Kemudian, we may say there used to be a tree.

√ √ -

6 Saya pikir, mahasiswa ini fail to understand what is assumed.

√ √ -

7 Dengan kata lain, presupposition will be the background.

√ √ -

8 Katanya, there is no Pragmatics test. √ √ -

9 Sementara itu, ITP adalah Institutional Test Program.

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All of the data in Table 1 are the code-switching from English to Indonesian. Moreover, each of the data in Table 1, started from number 1 to 9, is seen as tag-switching, including certain set phrases, like in data number 6, 7, and 9. Mostly, the data in the Table 1 are conjunctions. Take a look at data number 1 and 2, for example. Those two are used at beginning of the sentence as sentence fillers. They are spoken as a function to signal the students that the lecturer has paused to think but has not even yet finished talking. In the data number 1, the lecturer said “biasanya,” as a sentence opener while he was thinking the following words to finish the sentence.

Meanwhile, another example, in data number 4 to 7, the tags are considered as conjunctive adverbs or conjunctions, which are parts of discourse markers. Discourse markers are used to direct, or redirect, the flow of conversation without adding any significant meaning to the discourse. In data number 4, for example, the lecturer said “lanjut,” which in English is “next,” in order to sequence the content of the conversation. By seeing the context of the sentence, it is known that the lecturer was directing the students to continue discussing the following number, after having finished discussing the previous number.

Another example is in data number 6 and 7. While in data number 6, the lecturer said “saya pikir,” which in English is “I think,” to show a personal point of view on a student that was being talked about, in data number 7, “dengan kata lain,” or “in other words” in English, is used to explain what is being talked in a kind of different way.

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Further, in discussing tag-switching, this type of code-switching does not only occur at the beginning of the sentence, like in the Table 1, but it also occurs at the end of the sentence, as seen in the Table 2 below:

Table 2. Tag-switching in the final position

No Expression Language Content

English Indonesian Javanese

10 Logikanya, it is an analogy, kan? √ √ -

11 If I’ll talk to you another time artinya I’ll talk to you in the future, kan?

√ √ -

12 When somebody says something berarti kita harus tahu assumption-nya, kan?

√ √ -

13 Though we are half dead, we are alive. Tidak ada yang setengah mati dan setengah hidup, kan?

√ √ -

14 My car ran properly, kan? √ √ -

Tag-switching is not only found at the beginning of a sentence, but also at the end of a sentence. Each tag occurred at the end of the sentence in the Table 2 above is also known as a question tag, in which a statement is turned into a question by adding a question tag “kan.” By seeing data number 10 to 14 in Table 2 above, the utterance of each tag takes place at the end of the sentence. This is done in order to ensure whether or not what is said is right. For example, in data number 11, after giving an explanation about the lecture, the lecturer said “kan” or “right” in English, followed by question mark, to ask whether or not his explanation was correct. After all, the explanation about “kan” in data number 11 applies to data number 10, 12, 13 and 14, in which to ensure whether or not what is said is correct.

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Tag-switching tends to occur in the form of discourse markers, as well as interjections, as seen in the Table 3 below:

Table 3. Tag-switching at discourse markers and interjection

No Expression Language Content

English Indonesian Javanese 15 Teman-teman! Is there any one of you

have ever taken a TOEFL test?

√ √ -

16 Teman-teman! If you want to take the real

TOEFL test, … √ √ -

17 Jadi, this paper becomes your final paper. √ √ -

18 Jadi, whatever we say will lead… √ √ -

19 Jadi, harga bisa berubah. It can change. √ √ - 20 Jadi, kalian cuma prepare a scrap of paper. √ √ - 21 Some of them are facts. Jadi, kalian

jangan berspekulasi apapun.

√ √ -

22 Perhatian! To watch this video kalian harus menggunakan loud speaker.

√ √ -

23 Halo! Ada yang tahu this one? √ √ -

While some of the data in Table 3 above occur in the form of discourse markers, the other occurs in the form of interjection. In data number 17 to 21, for example, “jadi” which in English is “so” is a part of discourse markers. In general, it marks the beginning of a new part of the conversation. It is also used to refer back to statements that have already been mentioned previously. Take a look at data number 20, for example, “jadi” in that context is a tag that is used as a conclusion of a statement that has just been mentioned previously. In data number 17, on the other hand, “jadi” is used as an opener of a new conversation.

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Some of the data in Table 3 occur in the form of interjection. Interjection is also a part of tag. Interjection is used for giving expressions to people. The data which are categorized into interjection in the Table 3 are the data number 15, 16, 22, and 23.

In data number 15 and 16, “teman-teman”, which means “friends” or “mates”, was uttered by the lecturer to address the students. Moreover, in data number 22 and 23, the lecturer called “halo!” and “perhatian” as well. These utterances, including “teman-teman,” were used by the lecturers to attract the students’ attention before giving the statements or asking questions.

Tag-switching often takes place in interjection. Interjection with its short sound, word, or phrase is spoken suddenly to express the speaker emotion, such as surprise, horror, or pain.

b. Intersentential Switching

As the term indicated, ntersentential switching is a type of code-switching that the switch involves the movement from one language to another between sentences. However, intersentential can also occur in the clause boundary. According to Hoffmann (1991:112), intersentential switching is a kind of code switching that occurs between clause or sentence boundary. Bond (2010:134) also added that intersentential switching is syntactically more restricted, which occurs at clausal or sentential boundaries. In other words, intersentential not only can occur at the sentence boundary, but also at the clause boundary, as seen in the Table 4 below:

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Table 4. Intersentential switching at the conditional sentence

No Expression Language Content

English Indonesian Javanese 24 Kalau lagi galau, pusing, atau sakit, your

TOEFL score will not be satisfactory.

√ √ -

25 Kalau saya tiba-tiba mengulangi hal yang sama, please remind me.

√ √ -

26 So, jika kenyataannya itu dibalik, you’ll

see the… √ √ -

27 So, kalau iki wes beres, we’ll move to methodology.

√ - √

28 Kalau teman-teman bertanya, Mr. Risang, why Sanata Dharma…

√ √ -

29 For example, kalau dapat di Google, write down the source.

√ √ -

30 Kalau tidak dibaca, we can’t even discuss it.

√ √ -

31 Jika pertanyaannya how was the vocation, berarti saya habis berlibur.

√ √ -

32 If we ask his name, kita tahu dia pasti punya nama.

√ √ -

If we ask where he lives, pasti dia punya rumah

√ √ -

34 Kalau dia bukan milyuner, it doesn’t

mean he’s poor. √ √ -

35 Jika kemudian I were him, berarti urusanku dengan dia.

√ √ -

36 So, kalau mau ke toilet, kalian harus antri.

√ √ -

37 In fact, this guy is not friendly. Kalau cowok ini baik hati, kooperatif, ceweknya pasti bakal klarifikasi kalau itu bukan anjingnya.

√ √ -

Each of the data in the Table 4, from number 24 to 37, is the intersentential switching occurs at the conditional sentence. In the data number 24 to 35, the switch occurs at the clause level while in the last two numbers, 36 and 37, the switch occurs at the sentence level.

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In the data number 24 to 30, for example, the switch of code occurs at the “if clause” of conditional sentence. In the data number 24, particularly, in a full conditional sentence, the switch of code occurs at the clause level, which is the “if clause,” of conditional sentence. The lecturer opened the conversation by using Indonesian language in the “if clause” before changing into English in the main clause of the sentence. By seeing the form of the sentence, it is known that it is the type 1 of the conditional sentence, in which the lecturer tried to explain the possible condition to happen to the result of TOEFL test if the students were over thinking, worried, or sick.

Another example is in the data number 27. In the data number 27, the conditional sentence is similar to data number 24 where the switch of code occurs in the “if clause.” The type of the conditional is similar, as well, which is the type 1, or the first type of conditional. It explains the possible condition to happen in the future based on what is done in the present. However, in this case, the difference lies on the code or the language. Meaning to say, the switch of code in this clause involves Javanese language. The switch occurs from Javanese into English followed in the next clause.

Furthermore, in the data number 30, although the switch still occurs in the “if clause” of conditional sentence, the type of conditional is different. In this case the type is conditional zero. When in data number 24 and 27 explain the possible condition that will happen in the future, the conditional zero in the data number 30, refers to the general truth. Meaning to say, by seeing the context of the lecturer’s instruction, “kalau tidak dibaca” or in English “if it is not read,” it is known that the

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lecturer expected the students to read the material that was given. Otherwise, they could not discuss the material together at all.

When the switch of code in data number 24 to 30 in the Table 4 occur in the “if clause,” otherwise, in the data number 31 to 35, the switch occurs at the main clause of conditional sentence. Take a look at data number 31, for example. As mentioned, the switch of code in data number 31 occurs at the main clause of conditional sentence. The same thing happens to data number 32 and 33 as well. The form in these three numbers is actually similar. It is the type zero of conditional sentence. In data number 32, for example, the switch, “kita tahu dia pasti punya nama,” or “we know he definitely has a name” in English, which occurs in the main clause is the result of “if clause.” The same form and explanation in data number 32 also applies to data number 33. However, in this case, the lecturer tried to explain the material by using a different example.

While the switch of the previous numbers in the Table 4 occur at the clause level, whether at the “if clause” or main clause, in the data number 36 and 37, the switch of code occurs in the full conditional sentence. In data number 36, the switch of code occurs in both “if clause” and main clause of conditional sentence. The type of conditional sentence itself is the type zero. It gives the general truth or fact. Therefore, in this case, as seen, in the data number 36, which is “kalau mau ke toilet, kalian harus antri” or in English means “If you want to go to the toilet, you have to queue,” the lecturer tried to give an explanation to the students about the fact to happen if they leave for the restroom.

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Another example of the switch in the full conditional sentence is in the data number 37. A little bit different from the previous data number 36, data number 37 occurs in the type 2 or the second type of conditional sentence. It can be proved by seeing the form of the sentence, “kalau cowok ini baik hati, kooperatif, ceweknya pasti bakal klarifikasi kalau itu bukan anjingnya” or in English would be like “if this guy were kind, corporative, the girl would definitely clarify it is not her dog.” In the context of the lecture, the lecturer tried to explain to the students about the possibility that probably would happen as the result of the condition if the guy were kind.

After discussing intersentential switching that occurs at the conditional sentence, now the discussion is about intersentential switching which occurs in a form of questions, or particularly in interrogative sentences, as seen in the Table 5 below:

Table 5. Intersentential switching in the interrogative sentence

No Expression Language Content

English Indonesian Javanese 38 For example, apa bahasa Inggrisnya

piring, sabun, dan seterusnya?

√ √ -

39 Anything else? Ada versi lain? √ √ -

40 What’s the difference? Bedanya di mana? √ √ - 41 She asked about the vocation. Kira-kira

apa yang dia pikirkan sebelumnya?

√ √ -

42 If you see the context here, kenapa sampai dia bisa ngomong hal itu?

√ √ -

43 I want to ask you a question. Kenapa ada istilah wanita karier?

√ √ -

44 And then, Kenapa tidak ada istilah pria karier?

√ √ -

45 What is the meaning of pharmacy? Kui artinya opo?

√ - √

46 Before we continue, ada yang mau ditanyakan?

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136 Trust me itu terjadi Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

137 Permasalahannya adalah three

skills bring… Intrasentential Switching

√ √ √

138 Yang pertama itu five hundred, which is B

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

139 Pertanyaannya adalah “how

was it?” Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

140 Jika pertanyaannya how was the vocation, berarti saya habis berlibur.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

141 It’s not truth about the information anymore karena itu sudah terbukti.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

142 Alasan yang tidak kita tahu adalah she or he doesn’t have time.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

143 Lalu kenapa kalimatnya future? Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

144 So, the sentence means dia tidak bisa mengomong sekarang.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

145 When somebody says something berarti kita harus tahu assumption-nya, kan?

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

146 From the sentence we know dia tidak bisa bicara sekarang.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

147 From this word kita tahu asumsinya dia.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

148 Silahkan berdiskusi dan pastikan the presupposition and the structure.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

149 Dia perlu bertanya “can I talk to

you?” Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

150 Jawabannya “I drop the glass.” Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

151 Apapun yang saya tanyakan adalah summary of the story.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

152

When I ask him about the theme, jawabannya adalah “one day.”

Intrasentential

Switching √ √ -

153 Biasanya, penjelasan kalian tidak brief.

Intrasentential Switching

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154 You can work the assignment yang saya berikan kemarin.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

155 Based on the data, tahukah Anda

that most of you… Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

156 Perhatian! To watch this video kalian harus menggunakan loud speaker.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

157 Okay, what information yang kita dapatkan?

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

158 As he is speaking, Anda juga taking notes.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

159 Halo! Ada yang tahu this one? Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

160 Kalau saya katakan my car used to run properly, it means it is running properly now.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

161 My car is not running properly now, means bukan asumsi.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

162 Kita tidak akan bilang my car used to run properly if…

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

163 Kita bisa katakan there used to be a tree.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

164 Maybe you can’t imagine that meskipun itulah kenyataannya.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

165 Lab jurnalistik itu dulunya tidak ada but stairs.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

166 If I were you kan urusannya jelas.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

167 Salah sendiri cowok ini berasumsi that the dog belongs to the woman.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

168 So, you don’t actually learn from Betty Azar, setiap hari, dari chapter one sampai twenty.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

169 Listen, kalau no, berarti bisa di-invert atau tidak di-di-invert.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ √

170 Kalau yes, langsung bisa di-invert.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

171 Makan itu butuh proses which needs kira-kira five minutes.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

172 Reasoned is not alasan, but akal budi.

Intrasentential Switching

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173 Itu karena word karier belong to man.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

174 Pharmacy’s meaning is apotek or toko obat.

Intrasentential Switching

√ √ -

175 Listen, kalau no, berarti bisa di-invert atau tidak di-di-invert.

Intra-word Switching

√ √ -

176 Kalau yes, langsung bisa di-invert.

Intra-word Switching

√ √ -

177 When somebody says something berarti kita harus tahu assumption-nya, kan?

Intra-word Switching

√ √ -

178 Ada tiga tes yang akan kita lakukan di kelas. They are pretest, post-test itu mid-test-nya Listening, dan complete test adalah final test.

Intra-word Switching

√ √ -

179 Alright, sekarang presupposition-nya.

Intra-word Switching

√ √ -

180 Kita sudah buat analisis panjang lebar, tapi conclusion-nya pakai “I think.”

Intra-word Switching

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Appendix 2: Transcriptions of Interviews on the Lecturers’ Reasons of Code -Switching in the Classroom Instructions

Lecturer 1