Instructional Design Model Theoretical Review

44 Figure 2.6. The ADDIE Model of Instructional Design In brief, the stages are conducted by doing needs analysis Analysis, identifying instructional goals and course content Design, selecting teaching strategies and instructional media Development, teaching the course Implementation, and conducting evaluation and revision Evaluation. Revision can be done anytime within each process. The further tasks and activities in ADDIE model are presented in the table below. Table 2.3. The Stages in ADDIE Model STAGE TASK DELIVERABLES Analysis Needs assessment Learner analysis Task, context, goal, and subordinate skill analysis Problem statement Behavioral tasks Learner entry skills Design Framing of objectives Development of test items Instructional strategy Objectives Tests Design specifications Development Media production Content development Management strategies Storyboard Script Instructional materials Implementation Planning and management of instructional delivery Teacher’s guide and other support materials Evaluation Formative evaluation Summative evaluation Recommendations Project report Source: Based on Lohr 2003 and Seels and Glasgow 1998 in Cennamo and Kalk 2005 Evaluation Analysis Design Development Implementation revision revision revision revision 45 According to the table above, in the Analysis stage, the needs assessment and learner analysis are conducted. They aim to gather the useful information about the learners’ characteristics as well as the problems they faced during the teaching and learning process. Besides, needs assassment also aims to understand the learners background, learning environment, and expectation toward the learning process, and other relevant information. In the Design stage, the objectives and the research instruments are created. The objectives are derived from the syllabus of the subjects of the research. The content of the materials should be adjusted with the core competences and basic competences. After that, the design of the research instruments are made. The research instruments can be in the form of questionnaires, interview guidelines, and tests. The next stage is Development which deals with the media production, content development, management strategies. The storyboard is created to be the guidance to make the product. The materials are developed according to the specifications during the Design stage. The Implementation stage involves the planning and management of instructional delivery. In this stage, the product is presented to the participants of the research. Then they will use the product and give evaluation to the product. The last stage is Evaluation in which the participants, after using the product, give their opinions, comments, and suggestions to the product. Evaluation consists of two types, namely formative and summative assessment. Formative assessment is an ongoing process so it is conducted in each stage of the ADDIE process. While summative assessment is conducted after the product is presented. 46 Those processes aim to gather feedback about the product. The feedback is used to decide what aspects need to be revised and whether the revision is necessary or not. 2 Dick and Carey Model The second instructional model is the Dick and Carey model. Gall et al. 2003: 570 state that Dick and Carey model belongs to one of the most widely used models of educational research and development. This model proposes a methodology to break down the steps into smaller components. It consists of ten steps as presented in the following figure. Figure 2.7. The Systems Approach Model for Designing Instructions source: Gall et al., 2003: 571 According to Dick et al. 2009, this model involves all the components in the process. The first step of the Dick and Carey model is identifying instructional goals. The instructional goals are derived from the needs assessment which is conducted to determine the problems encountered by the learners. The second step is conducting instructional analysis which is done by determining what participants 47 need to learn in order to meet the instructional goals. The next step is analysing learners and contexts. This aims to identify the specific skills the learners need to achieve as well as the specific characteristics of the learners. The fourth step is writing the performance objectives. The objectives should include the skills to be learned and the criteria for successful performances. The fifth step is developing assessment instruments. The instruments can be in the form of questionnaires, interview guidelines, or observation checklists. The next is developing instructional strategy. From the information collected in the previous steps, the strategy is defined to achieve the termina objectives. The strategies include the instructional activities, presentation of information, practice and feedback, testing, and follow- up activities. The seventh step is developing and selecting instructional materials. To develop the materials, it depends on the type of learning to be taught, the relevant materials, and the available resources. Next, the eighth step i.e. designing and conducting the formative evaluation of instruction. There are three types of formative evalaution, namely one-to-one evaluatiom, small group evaluation, and field evaluation. Each evaluation type provide different kinds of information which are useful to improve the product. The ninth step is revising instruction which is initally done by summarizing the and interpreting the data to decide what aspects need to be revised. The last step is designing and conducting summative evaluation. It occurs after the instructions has been formatively evaluated and sufficiently revised to meet the designer’s standards. 3 The ID4T Model Another ID model is proposed by Carr-Chellman 2011, named the Instructional Design for Teachers ID4T. She has tried to boil down the general 48 concepts in ID into more simplified and sensible process of creating learning for classroom. There are nine basic steps in the ID4T model, namely: 1 write instructional goals; 2 write learning objectives; 3 write matching assessmentstest items; 4 analyze learner characteristicsprerequisites; 5 select materialstext; 6 select and design activities; 7 select and develop if need be mediatechnology; 8 implement the plan; and 9 evaluate and revise the instruction. This model can be illustrated as a model of school room like in the following figure. Figure 2.8. The Nine Steps of the ID4T Model source: www.ed.psu.edu The first step in this model is done by determining the goals i.e. what the learners are able to dounderstand at the end of the lesson. After that, those goals are then broken down into more specific objectives. The next step is writing the test items that match the objectives. Then, the fourth step is analyzing learner characteristics including information about who the leaners are and what they know, and match it with the objectives. The next step is selecting the materials for the lesson as well as the suitable activities. Then, the designer should consider about 49 the possible developing media and technology. After all materials, activities, and media have been integrated, the plan should be implemented to the target learners. From the implementation, feedback is obtained to be used in the final step i.e. evaluate and revise instruction. 4 Zook’s System Model Another variation of ID model is proposed by Zook 2001 as cited in Shambaugh and Magliaro 2006. The significant different of Zook’s model is that Zook identifies an explicit activity related to content, namely “identify and analyze content”. This step is done simultaneously with identifying goals. The details of the steps in Zook’s model can be seen in the following figure. Figure 2.9. System ID Model by Zook source:Shambaugh and Magliaro, 2006 From the figure above, it can be inferred that the difference of this model among other ID model is the assessment procedure is determined before designing the teaching strategies. Besides, Zook also adds a step to diagnose learner 50 difficulties. The result of identifying learner difficulties step is then used to conduct a remidiate step toward the instructions. 5 The ASSURE model The next ID model is the ASSURE model. Smaldino et al. 2005 define the ASSURE model as “a procedural guide for planning and conducting instruction that incorporates media and technology”. This model selects and implements instructional technology within learning activities Shambaugh and Magliaro, 2006. This model consists of six steps, namely Analyze learners; State objectives; Select method, media, and materials; Utilize media and materials; Require learner participation; and Evaluate and revise ASSURE. The further description about the ASSURE steps is presented below. Table 2.4. The ASSURE Model 1. Analyze learners. Conduct analysis in terms of general characteristics of the learners and the specific competences needed by these individuals, such as knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

2. State Objectives. State the learning objectives in terms of what the learner

will know or be able to do as a result of the instruction.

3. Select methods, media, and materials. Three options exist to bridge

learners and objectives: select materials that currently exist, modify materials in some way, or design new materials.

4. Utilize media and materials. Plan how materials will be used, gathering the

necessary materials together, and using them in instruction.

5. Require learner participation. Activities and time are required for

adequate practice and reinforcement of performance.

6. Evaluate and revise

This model employs a linear stage which is done in orderly steps. The step begins with needs assessment to gather information about learners’ characteristics as well as specific competences to be fulfilled by them. Besides, it is also necessary to understand students’ learning styles, including their preferences and strengths, information processing habits, and motivational factors Smaldino et al., 2005. 51 After that, learning objectives are drawn to meet learner and learning needs. Then, methods, media, and materials are selected to be implemented in the real classroom activities. They can be adopted from the existing materials, modifiedadapted accordingly, or designed themselves by the teachers. Next, they are gathered and used in the classroom instruction. The learners are supposed to take part in the implementation for giving feedback and response toward the instructional model. Their feedback is then used to evaluate the media or materials as well as to make revision to the product. Accoding to this model, evaluation focuses on learner achievement, media materials, and the whole instructional design. c. Characteristics of Well-designed Software In designing and developing software for language learning, developers should follow some guidelines for software evaluation. They should be able to incorporate certain important features into the products. Egbert and Hanson-Smith 1999 propose some characteristics of well-designed software, namely consistency, good use of space, legibility, ease of navigation and recovery, and high-quality playback. Those characteristics provide a friendly interface so that users do not need to master before they access the content and the instruction of the program. The first characteristic is consistency. This feature can make users spend less mental energy on mastering the software design and allow them to focus more on the content of the software. In software design, consistency means that the placement of elements on the screen remains stable from one display to the next; color, layout, capitalization, and fonts are consistent within each major segment of the software; and the terminology used in prompts, menus, and help screens is consistent from one part of the software to another Egbert Hanson-Smith, 1999: 442-443. 52 The consistent interface helps users to gain easy access to the software. They will not find difficulties finding the appropriate controls of the software. The second characteristic is good use of space. For mobile software, this feature is very important because of the limited space in a screen. It determines how much information that can be put in one screen. Egbert and Hanson-Smith 1999: 443 state that “in software design, each section of content should fit onto one screen and different parts of the information should be distinguised from one another spatially rather than through variations in color, style, or other treatments”. If there are too many other treatments in one display, such as lines, bullet points, bold and underlined text, and the likes, it will distract users from the content with “visual noise”. The third characteristic is legibility. The text on the screen must be legible easy to see and readable lines or text must be easy to scan in normal reading patterns Eggbert Hanson-Smith, 1999. Therefore, developers should consider about the font size and how texts are presented on the screen. The next characteristics include contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity. Those four elements are the basic principles of visual design William, 1994 as cited in Eggbert Hanson-Smith, 1999. Different components should have different contrasts to each other. Meanwhile, logos and navigation buttons should be repeated to unify the various screens in the same section. Each element on the screen should be aligned horizontally or vertically in a consistent design. Related items should be placed close to each other because users will assume that items in closer proximity are related. 53 Another characteristic is ease of navigation and recovery. A good design should anticipate users with making serious errors. The software should provide clear instructions for recovery if users make troubles or errors. The last characteristic is high-quality playback. The audio or video if available should be in sufficiently high technical quality. The audio file should be clear enough for the users so that they will be able to recognize the language and use it as a model for their pronunciation. In conclusion, there are various features inside a mobile application which need to be considered, including the layout, buttons, navigation, fonts, audios, and other related items. Thus, the developers should pay attention to both the physical performance design and layout and also the inner components operation and contents. The application should be packaged in such a practical way that the users can access it easily. By fulfilling those criteria, the softwareapplication is expected to have an easy operation and can effectively support learning.

B. Review of Related Studies

To provide more insight about the use of Android application in language learning, some related studies are presented here. First, it is the study conducted by Martono and Nurhayati 2014 which promotes the use of an Android-based mobile learning application as a means of learning. This study uses Research and Development R D method aiming to build and develop an application which can be used as a flexible learning medium. Most of the respondents i.e. the university students, state that they enjoy learning using this application. Unlike that research, this research focuses on developing the Android application for senior high school students. 54 The second study is conducted by Shanmugapriya and Tamilarasi 2013. The study focuses on the design and development of Mobile Assisted Language Learning MALL for English Language using Android push notification services. The learning content and exercises in the application focus on improving stud ents’ grammar, pronunciation, listening, speaking, reading, writing, and vocabulary skills. Based on this research, the use of Android push notifications can support the theory that mobile devices can enable enhanced, personalized, and life-long learning. Taking the benefits of using Android application for learning, this research also employs the use of Android application for developing language skills, but the focus is on a particular skill i.e. listening skill. As this research focuses on the use of mobile devices for language learning, some studies related to MALL are also presented. Baleghizadeh and Oladrostam 2010 have conducted a study on the effect of MALL on grammatical accuracy of EFL students. The mobile phones are used to record the English class discussions intended to elicit grammatical forms under review. The experimental group shows significantly better grammatical accuracy compared to the control group that did not engage in the review activities. Another study conducted by Deng and Shao 2011 investigate students’ attitudes towards a freely available mobile-phone based e-dictionary application for self directed English vocabulary acquisition. The result shows that the participants are able to automate their vocabulary learning with the software in their daily life. Yamada et al. 2011 have conducted a study on the effectiveness of a smartphone and web server program on the improvement of L2 English listening comprehension. It targets sales staff in a large Japanese company and uses audio-video clips of workplace scenarios accompanying tutorial exercises.