14 2003. The conceptualization of cognitive engagement also includes the flexible
problem solving, psychological investment which draws similarly from the idea of motivation, and strategic or self-regulation Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris,
2004.
3. Student Engagement and Motivation
In a learning process, both terms: motivation and student engagement are linked closely since both of them serve as a significant construct to keep the
students to continue their learning. Studies have shown that students who are highly motivated and engaged most likely perform better achievement and are
better learners Schlechty, 2011; Woofolk Margetts, 2007 in Saeed Zyngier, 2012.
To be motivated, according to Ryan and Deci 2000, means “to be moved to do something”. Further, they explain that motivated students are characterized
by the energy and enthusiasm they perform toward an end of a task or project. While students who are engaged are characterized such as by their effort in
learning, involvement in their own learning, persistence to achieve goals in spite of the difficulties the students have, ability to work together and creatively solving
problems Newmann, 1992; Schlechty, 2001 in Saeed Zyngier, 2012. In general, motivation becomes the source of student engagement while
student engagement is an outcome of a motivational process Reeve, 2012; Saeed Zyngier, 2012. Reeve 2012, in detail, differentiates motivation and student
engagement as a private and unobservable psychological, neural and biological process for the first one and an observable behavior that is performed publicly for
the later construct. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
15
4. Measurement of Student Engagement
As mentioned in early part of this chapter, student engagement was primarily assessed based on students’ attendance to school and its activities,
particularly their attitudes and involvement, because the measurement result was utilized to determine the actions to reduce school dropout. Since engagement has
now covered not limitedly to students’ behavior, the concepts of emotion and cognitive aspects have to be included into the measurement of student
engagement. The meta-construct of student engagement consequently defines on how it
is measured. Therefore, it has to be noted that one concept of engagement may also describe the other type of engagement. For example, behavior engagement is
observed through students’ positive behavior such as completing homework and adherence to school rules. Yet, it is also observed through students’ work-related
behavior such as effort, attention, and persistence Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris, 2004.
The measurement of emotional engagement is observed based on the students’ positive and negative feeling as well as their interaction toward the
school, academics, teachers, and peers such as being happy, interested, sad, bored, frustrated, anxious, and angry. The measurement of this engagement often
involves values and orientation toward school, whether the students are satisfied with their achievement and how they perceive the importance of the school
subjects to their future Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris, 2004. Cognitive engagement, which notion is often overlap with intrinsic
motivation, is conceptualized as psychological investment in learning. It is PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
16 observed through students’ flexible problem solving, willingness to comprehend
complex ideas by implementing meta-cognitive strategy such as regulating attention, persistence, relating new information to existing knowledge, and
actively monitoring comprehension, and self-regulation Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris, 2004; Fredricks and McColskey, 2012.
There are various instruments that have been developed to measure student engagement with specific aims of measurement or emphasize on particular type of
engagement, such as Engagement vs. Disaffection with Learning—Student Report and Identification with School Questionnaire ISQ or instruments which cover all
constructs of engagement such as School Engagement Measure SEM and School Engagement Instrument Fredricks and McColskey, 2012. The data are collected
through various methods such as student and teacher report, observation, interview, questionnaire, experience sampling, and focus case studies Chapman,
2003; Fredricks, and McColskey, 2012. One instrument that is broadly used and has served numerous schools and universities is NSSE National Survey of
Student Engagement which survey is used to find data that educational institution may use to improve its students and institutional performances, to discover and to
document effective educational practice, and to encourage the educational institutions to report their performance publicly Kuh, 2009.
Most of the instrument to measure student engagement is built for school- wide engagement. Barkley 2010:5, however, mentioned that student engagement
is very possible to be observed and measured in classroom wide of which result is used to create the best learning environment to improve the students’ performance
in the subject learned. Moreover, student engagement is best analyzed within a PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
