Student Engagement and Motivation

16 observed through students’ flexible problem solving, willingness to comprehend complex ideas by implementing meta-cognitive strategy such as regulating attention, persistence, relating new information to existing knowledge, and actively monitoring comprehension, and self-regulation Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris, 2004; Fredricks and McColskey, 2012. There are various instruments that have been developed to measure student engagement with specific aims of measurement or emphasize on particular type of engagement, such as Engagement vs. Disaffection with Learning—Student Report and Identification with School Questionnaire ISQ or instruments which cover all constructs of engagement such as School Engagement Measure SEM and School Engagement Instrument Fredricks and McColskey, 2012. The data are collected through various methods such as student and teacher report, observation, interview, questionnaire, experience sampling, and focus case studies Chapman, 2003; Fredricks, and McColskey, 2012. One instrument that is broadly used and has served numerous schools and universities is NSSE National Survey of Student Engagement which survey is used to find data that educational institution may use to improve its students and institutional performances, to discover and to document effective educational practice, and to encourage the educational institutions to report their performance publicly Kuh, 2009. Most of the instrument to measure student engagement is built for school- wide engagement. Barkley 2010:5, however, mentioned that student engagement is very possible to be observed and measured in classroom wide of which result is used to create the best learning environment to improve the students’ performance in the subject learned. Moreover, student engagement is best analyzed within a PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 17 context. For this reason, the instruments to measure and analyze student engagement are often developed based on the specific information on learning, school, or family context Christenson, Reschly, and Wylie, 2012.

B. Computer Assisted Language Learning CALL and Online Learning

Computer Assisted Language Learning or briefly acknowledged as CALL is the use of computer in order to support the learning process. Computer, in this field, is not limited to only desktop and laptop devices but it also includes “the network connecting them, peripheral devices associated with them, and a number of other technological innovations such as PDAs, mp3 players, mobile phones, electronic whiteboards, and even DVD players which have a computer of sorts embedded in them” Levy Hubbard, 2005 in Hubbard, 2009. Generally, ICT is defined as “any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language” Beatty, 2003 in Hubbard, 2009. The improvements are in terms of learning efficiency, learning effectiveness, access, convenience, motivation, and institutional efficiency Hubbard, 2009. ICT promotes learning efficiency and effectiveness that the students may obtain language knowledge or skills faster or with less effort and make deeper associations thus retain the knowledge or skills longer. When ICT is used, the students have broader access to collect materials and to interact more. It is convenient since the students are in their own choice to learn in term of time and place. In integrating ICT for distance learning, there are two settings of ICT use for classroom communication that are synchronous and asynchronous setting. The first one is described as conducting the class in which “teacher and students meet