The Nature of Speaking 1 The Definition of Speaking skill

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

A. The Nature of Speaking 1 The Definition of Speaking skill

Bygate 1997: 7 tells that speaking is a “popular” form of expression which uses the unprestigious “colloquial” register: Literary skills are on the whole more prized. According to Nunan 1989: 26 speaking is a process consisting of short, often fragmentary utterances in a range of pronunciation. It means that speaking is a process of fragmentary words in pronunciation. There are three definitions stated by Widowson 1996: 58-59 as follows: a. First, he says that speaking is active, or productive, and makes use of the aural medium. b. Second, speaking is commonly performed in face to face interaction and occurs as part of a dialogue or other form of verbal exchange. c. Third, speaking as an instance of use, therefore, is a part of reciprocal exchange in which both reception and production play a part. In this sense, the skill of speaking involves both receptive and productive participation. It means that speaking is an activity which uses aural medium and it commonly occurs in face to face interaction that involves both receptive and productive participation. Moreover, Syakur 1987: 5 says that speaking is a complex skill because at least it is concerned with components of pronunciation, vocabulary and fluency. commit to user According to Skehan in Ellis, 2003: 108 speaking is possible because of the way language is represented. It means that speaking is the one way to apply the language so by speaking the speaker can represent what they are saying. Lewis and Hill 1993: 54 argue that speaking is process that covers many things in addition to the pronunciation of individual sounds. While, Tarigan 1990: 3 defines speaking as a language skill that is developed in child life, which is preceded by listening skill, and at that period the speaking skill is learned. It means that speaking is the basis of language. The process of speaking happens or is preceded by listening skill. From Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary, speaking is making use of ordinary voice, uttering words, knowing and being able to use language; expressing oneself in word, making speech, while skill is the ability to do something well. Levelt 995: 1 reveals that speaking is one of man’s most complex skills. It is a skill which is unique to our species. Briendly 1995: 19 makes specification about oral skill. He believes that oral is to: a Express oneself intelligibly b Convey intended meaning accurately with sufficient command of vocabulary c Use language appropriate to context d Interact with other speakers fluently He also separates oral skill into four areas that are interactive communication for fluency or effect on listeners, intelligibly for pronunciation or prosodic commit to user features, appropriation for pragmatic competence or register, and accuracy for structure and vocabulary resources. From the definitions above, it can be concluded that speaking is a process fragmentary word in pronunciation, vocabulary and fluency which uses aural medium and it commonly occurs in face to face interaction that involves both receptive and productive participation. 2 Problems in Speaking Activity Teaching speaking has many problems. According to Ur, Penny 1996: 6 there are some problems faced by the learners in speaking activities. They are as follows: a. Inhibition Unlike reading, writing and listening activities, speaking requires some real time exposure to an audience. Learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in foreign language in the classroom, such as: worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism, or shy of attention that their speech attracts. b. The lack of theme to be spoken Some learners get the difficulties in thinking of anything to say, they have no motivation to express themselves beyond the guilty of feeling that they should be speaking. commit to user c. The low of Participation Only one participant can talk at time if he or she is to be heard. In a large group, this means that each one will have only very little time to talk. This problem is compounded by the tendency of some learner to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all. d. The use of mother- tongue In a number of classes, the learners share the same mother tongue. They may tend to use it because of some reasons. Firstly, it is easier. Secondly, it feels unnatural to speak to one another in foreign language. The last, they feel less ‘exposed’ if they are speaking their mother tongue. If they are talking in small groups, it can be quite difficult to keep using the target language. 3 Solutions for the Problems of Speaking Activity There are some solutions which can be selected to overcome the problems in speaking activity Ur, 1996: 121-122. These are: a. Use group work This increases the sheer amount of learner talk going on in a limited period of time and also lowers the inhibitions of learners who are unwilling o speak in front of the full class. It is true that group work means the teacher cannot supervise all learner speech, so that not all utterances will be correct, and learners may occasionally slip into their native language; nevertheless, even taking into consideration occasional mistakes and mother tongue use, the commit to user amount of time remaining for positive, useful oral practice is still likely to be far more than in the full-class set-up. b. Base the activity on easy language In general, the level of language needed for discussion should be lower than the use in intensive language-learning activities in the same class: it should be easily recalled and produced by the participants, so that they can speak fluently with the minimum hesitation. It is a good idea to teach or review essential vocabulary before the activity starts. c. Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest On the whole, the clearer the purpose of the discussion the more motivated participants will be. A good topic is one which students can relate using ideas from their own experience and knowledge. It should also represent a genuine controversy. Some questions or suggested lines of thought can help to stimulate discussion. A task is essentially goal-oriented. It requires the group, or pair, to achieve an objective that is usually expressed by an observable result such as brief notes or lists, a rearrangement of jumbled items, a drawing, and a spoken summary. d. Give some instruction or training in discussion skills If the task is based in group discussion then include instruction about participation when introducing it. For example, tell learners to make sure that everyone in the group contributes the discussion; appoint a chairperson to each group who will regulate participation. commit to user e. Keep students speaking in the target language Teacher might appoint one of the groups as monitor, whose job it is to remind participants to use the target language, and perhaps report later to he teacher how well the group managed to keep to it. Even if there is no actual penalty attached, the very awareness that someone is monitoring such lapses helps participants to be more careful. 4 Speaking Accuracy Accuracy in speaking is one of the main goals targeted by he learner in the process of teaching and learning a language. Brown 1994: 254 defines accurate as clear, articulate, grammatically and phonologically correct language. He adds that in a language teaching accuracy is achieved o some extent by allowing students to focus on elements of phonology, grammar, and discourse in their speaking output. Byrne 1997: 5 states that accuracy is the use of language which depends on mastery of the language system. He adds that language system includes grammar, vocabulary and phonology. 5 Speaking Fluency Fluency in speaking is one of the competencies targeted by many language learners. Signs of fluency include a reasonably fast speed of speaking and only a small number of pauses and fillers. commit to user Brown 1994: 254 defines distinction between accuracy and fluency. Accurate means clear articulate, grammatically and phonologically correct. While, fluent means following naturally. He also says that fluency may be on initial goal in language teaching but accuracy is gained to some extent by allowing learners to focus on the elements of phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken output.

B. The Concept of Teaching Speaking 1 Speaking Activities