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2 Transactional and Interactional Language
Richards, Platt, Weber 1989: 45, as cited in Nunan 1999: 201 propose two reasons of why speaking is produced. Those are transactional speaking and
interactional language. Firstly, transactional speaking is produced in order to get something, or to get something done. Secondly, interactional language is
produced for social purposes.
3 Purposes for Speaking
Bygate 1987, as cited in Nunan 1999: 201 suggests that conversations can be analysed in terms of routines. According to Bygate, routines are conversational
ways of presenting information. He presents two types of routines. These are information routines and interactional routines. It means that speaking can be
aimed to give information and to interact.
b. The Functions of Speaking
According to Instructional Resources Unit Curriculum and E-Learning Branch Saskatchewan Learning 2006, as cited in
www.sasked.gov.sk.cadocsmlaspeak.html , there are two important functions of
speaking. The functions are intellectual function and social function. The
following is the detailed information about the intellectual and social functions. 1
Intellectual Function
As the intellectual function, speaking shapes students’ perceptions of the world and represents these perceptions as knowledge. Thereby, speaking
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encourages students to reproduce and transform knowledge since they observe, evaluate information, and compare views. It means that the speaking is the
representation of their perceptions of the world. They shape knowledge from those perceptions.
2 Social Functions
As the social function, speaking helps students adjust to ideas and ideas are reformulated to facilitate students understanding. It means that speaking helps the
students shape ideas and express the ideas through speaking. Moreover, speaking is also used to form relationships through language. In addition, it is also stated
that as students become more proficient speakers, they develop their abilities to: interact socially, develop self-awareness, and to inform. The following are the
discussions of the three abilities. When the speakers have the ability to interact socially, first they will be able
to use language and ideas appropriate to the situation. Second, they will have the ability to respond to listeners’ verbal and nonverbal cues, restate ideas, and ask
questions to clarify understandings. Third, they will be able to use language to create images and to produce an emotional response. They will also have the
ability to acknowledge and be sensitive to others’ viewpoints. The students may learn speaking so as to be able to use the language and ideas
suited to the situation that the students face. They may be able to recognize the expressions in the language to be used in certain situation. It means that the
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students have to notice the situation when they want to express their ideas and speak.
The students also learn speaking so as to be able to respond to something that they face in their surroundings. They use the language to state and express the
ideas that they want to convey to the listeners. In addition, they also use the language to ask something that they want to know in the situation and to clarify
their understandings. When students learn speaking, they also learn to create images of themselves
and images of something. In this case, from the language that the students use, the students project a certain image. Furthermore, the language that the students use is
also the production of their emotional response. It is the expression of the students’ emotional response to something that they face in the world.
As the language is used in the interaction with the community in the society, when speaking, the students may also use the language to acknowledge and be
sensitive to the others’ viewpoints. Hence, they may give comments about the others’ viewpoints using the language. Moreover, in speaking the students are
supposed to be responsive to others’ viewpoints. When the speakers become more proficient speakers and develop their
abilities in developing self-awareness, they will be able to examine and explore personal points of view, identify flaws in their own and others’ reasoning,
determine what it is they need to know, and find effective ways of supporting their own opinions.
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The students learn speaking to probe and examine their points of view. They explore their personal points of view and later can express their points of view by
speaking. It is one of the ways in developing self-awareness. Therefore, the students also learn to develop self-awareness in the speaking class.
It is the part of developing self awareness that in speaking, the students also learn to identify their own flaws. They learn it from others. They also learn to
identify the others’ reasoning through the interaction in the society. They learn to understand and acquire the knowledge from this method.
In speaking, the students also learn to develop their self-awareness to determine what they need to know. It is to shape the knowledge that they need
since in speaking the students need to have enough knowledge. Hence, as the students be more proficient speakers, their abilities to determine what they need to
know improve. The self awareness also includes finding the effective ways of supporting the
students’ own opinions. The students not only learn to examine and explore personal points of view and express their opinions, but they also learn to find what
the effective ways to support the opinions are. They may look for some evidence or supporting ideas from other people and surroundings.
In becoming proficient speakers, the speakers may do speaking to inform. In this case, they will be able to use key language patterns, proper sequencing,
nonverbal cues, and appropriate intonation. They will also be able to provide essential information, determine the type of presentation necessary in order for the
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listeners to benefit and learn, and reflect to determine if their language is appropriate to their listeners.
As the social function, speaking enable students to use key language patterns, proper sequencing, nonverbal cues, and appropriate intonation. Hence, it is
becoming apparent that speaking has greater meaning than the word “speaking” itself. It includes the language patterns, sequencing, nonverbal cues, and
intonation. That is why in speaking classes the students need to be attributed with such devices. Therefore, the use of audio recording as the model in the speaking
class is aimed at providing the students with an adequate model of the social function of speaking. In this case, the students may learn the use of key language
patterns, proper sequencing, nonverbal cues, and appropriate intonation from the model.
Speaking also helps the students to gain essential information. In speaking, the students relate essential information to the listeners. Thereby, the students can
develop their abilities to share information and knowledge to the other students. What is informed to the listeners is the essential information. That is why in
speaking the students learn to determine what the type of presentation necessary to the listeners is so that the listeners can gain the benefit and learn from the
speaker. Moreover, the students are supposed to reduce any unnecessary information.
After knowing what the necessary information for the listeners to benefit and learn is, the speaker also learns to reflect whether the language that heshe used is
appropriate to the listeners. For, in speaking it is important to determine which is
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the appropriate language to the listeners is and which is not. Furthermore, from the reflection, the students as the speakers may have some feedbacks from the
listeners and the teacher about their performance. Hence, from the feedbacks, the students may learn and later can improve their speaking performance.
4. Teaching Speaking a. Elements in Teaching Speaking
